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A 



STUDY OF SIOIJAN CULTS 



BY 



lAMKS OWKX DOIiSKV 



KXTKA, T VnOM THIO KLEVKNTH AXNrAi. I^-M-okt <,F TIIF 

iifRKAi^ oi' irriiNoi.oov 




\\'ASJ[IX(JT()X 

«i<'VKl;.\.\lK\T Pi;r\TI.V(; OK KICK 
1 .S!M 



52266 



SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION— BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 



A STUDY OF SIOTJAN CULTS. 

BY / 

JAMES OWEN DORSEY. 



351 



CONTENTS. 



Pagei 

Chapter I. — Introduction -^"^l 

Defiuitions of "Culfaud "SioTiau" 361 

Siouau Family 361 



Authorities 



361 



Alphabet 363 



Abbreviatious 



364 



Chapter II.— Delinitious 36;> 

Alleged belief iu a Great Si>irit 365 

Phenomena divided into human and superhumau 365 

Terms for "mysterious," "lightning," etc 366 

Other Omaha and Ponka terms 367 

Significance of personal names and kinship terms 368 

Myth and legend distinguished from the superhuman 368 

Chapter III.— Cults of the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, and Osage 371 

Beliefs and ])ractices not found 371 

Omaha, Ponka, and Kansa belief in a wakauda 372 

Seven great wakandas •' '- 

. Invocation of warmth and streams 372 

Prayer to wakanda 3(3 

- 37^ 

Accessories ot ])rayer - '^'_'' 

Omaha and Kansa expressions about wakanda 374 

Ponka belief about malevcdeut spirits 374 

An old Omaha custom 3(-> 

The sun a wakanda 3/6 

Invocations f'J^ 

The offering of tobacco 3h 

The Ponka sun dance of 1873 378 

The moon a wakanda 37 

Berdaches ^^f 

Stars as wakandas 379 

The winds as wakandas 380 

Invocation ^^^ 

Kansa sacrifice to the winds 380 

Osaue consecration of mystic fireplaces 380 

The thunder-being a wakanda '^^^ 

Omaha and Ponka invocation of the thunder-being 381 

Thunder-being invoked by warriors 382 

383 

Ictasanda custom *^ _ 

Ka nsa worsh ip of the thunder-being 38;) 

Subterranean and subaquatic wakandas 3'^*' 

Theinilii<;iriga '^'^** 



11 ETH 23 



JO^ 



354 CONTENTS. 

Chapter III — Continued. Page. 

Other Kansa wakandas 387 

Omaha invocations of the trap, etc 387 

Fasting ' 390 

Mystic trees and plants 390 

I^a'efie 392 

Personal mystery decorations 394 

Order of thunder shamans 395 

Generic forms of decoration 397 

Specific forms of decoration 398 

Com and the buffalo 403 

Other Omaha mystery decorations 403 

Kansa mystery decorations 405 

Omaha nikie decorations 407 

Omaha nikie customs 410 

Governmental instrumentalities 411 

Omaha and Ponka taboos 411 

Fetichism 412 

Fetiches of the tribe and gens 413 

Omaha tribal fetiches 413 

Osage tribal fetiches 414 

Kansa tribal fetiches 415 

Personal fetiches 415 

Sorcery 416 

Jugglery 417 

Omaha and Ponka belief as to a fixture life 419 

Kansa beliefs respecting death and a future life 421 

Chapter IV. — j^ci^vere and Winnebago cults 423 

Authorities 423 

Term ' ' Great Spirit " never heard among the Iowa 423 

The sun a wakauta 423 

The winds as wakantas 423 

The thunder-being a wakanta 424 

Subterranean powers . . . : 424 

Subaquatic powers 424 

Animals as wakantas 425 

Apotheoses 425 

Dwellings of gods 425 

Worship 425 

Taboos 426 

Public or tribal fetiches 427 

Symbolic earth formations of the Winnebago 427 

Personal fetiches 428 

Dancing societies 428 

The Otter dancing society 429 

The Red Medicine dancing society 429 

The Green Corn dance 429 

The Buffalo dancing society 429- 

[ ciwcrc traditions 430 

1 ielief in a future life 430 

Chaiter V. — Dakota and Assiniboin cults 431 

Alleged Dakota belief in a Great Spirit 431 

Riggs on the Taku wakan 432 

Meaning of wakan 433 

Daimonism 433 



CONTENTS. 355 

Chapter V— Coutinueil. 

Page. 

Animism ,00 

Priucipal Dakota gods ^oa 

Miss Fletcher ou Indian religion 43^^ 

Prayer 435 

*^«^"fic« 435 

Use of paint in worship jog 

The nnktehi, or subaquatic and subterranean powers 438 

Character of the nnktehi 43g 

Power of the nnktehi 439 

Subordinates of the unktehi 439 

The mystery dance 44Q 

The miniwatu 44Q 

The "Waki'iya", or thunder-beings 44I 

The armor gods 443 

The war prophet 444 

The spirits of the mystery sacks 445 

Takuskai}skaij, the Moving deity 445 

Tunkan or Inyan, the Stone god or Lingam 447 

Iijyaij sa 443 

Mato tipi 44g 

The sun and moon 449 

Nature of concepts 449 

Tlie sun dance 450 

A Dakota's account of the sun dance 45O 

Object of the sun dance 454 

Rules observed by households 454 

The " u-ma-ne " 45I 

Rules observed by the devotee 452 

Tribes invited to the sun dance 452 

Discipline maintained 452 

Camping circle formed 453 

Men selected to seek the mystery tree 453 

Tent of preparation 454 

Expedition to the mystery tree 455 

Felling the tree 456 

Tree taken to camp 457 

Raising the sun pole 457 

Building of dancing lodge 45g 

The Uucita 45g 

Decoration of candidates or devotees 458 

Offerings of candidates 459 

Ceremonies at the dancing lodge 4(50 

The dance 160 

Candidates scarified 4(30 

Pieces of flesh offered 462 

Torture of owner of horse 462 

End of the dance 462 

Intrusive dances 463 

Captain Bourke on the sun dance 464 

Berdaches 467 

Astronomical lore 467 

Day and night 467 

The dawn 468 

Weather spirit 468 



35G CONTENTS. 

Chapter Y — Coutinned. Pao-e. 

Heyoka 468 

The concepts of Heyoka 468 

Heyoka feast 469 

Story of a Heyoka man 469 

Heyoka women 471 

lya, the god of gluttony 471 

Ikto, Iktomi, or lluktomi 471 

CaqotidaT] and Holinogica 473 

Anui;g-ite 473 

Penates 475 

Guardian spirits - 475 

Beliefs about tlie l)uflalo 475 

Prevalence of the beliefs 475 

Origin of the buffalo 476 

The Tataijgnaskiijyaij, or Mythic buffalo 477 

The bear 477 

The wolf 477 

Horses '. 479 

Spiders 479 

Snake lore • 479 

The double woman 480 

Deer women 480 

Dwarfs or elves 481 

Bogs 481 

Trees 482 

Customs relating to childliood 482 

Puberty 483 

Ghost lore and the future life 484 

Meaning of wanagi 484 

Assiniboiu beliefs about the dead . 485 

Ghosts not always visible 485 

Death and burial lore 485 

Why the Teton stopped burying in the ground 486 

Iiiiliortance of tattooing 486 

Ceremonies at the ghost lodge 487 

Good and bad ghosts 489 

Intercourse Avith ghosts 489 

Ghost stories 489 

The ghost husband 489 

The solitary traveler 489 

The ghost on the hill 489 

The ludiaji who wrestled with a ghost 489 

The man who shot a ghost 492 

Assiniboiu beliefs about ghosts 492 

Prayers to the dead, including ancestors 493 

Metamorphoses and transmigration of souls 493 

Exhoi'tations to absent warriors 493 

Mysterious men and women 493 

Gopher lore _ _ 496 

Causes of boils and sores 496 

Results of lying, stealing, etc 497 

Secret societies 497 

Fetichism 498 

Public or tribal fetiches 498 

Private or i)ersonal fetiches 498 



CONTENTS. 357 

Chapter V — Continued. ■p.^„^ 

Ordeals, or modes of swearing 499 

Sorcery and jugglery 499 

Omens 500 

Bodily omens 5qq 

Animal omens 500 

Omens from dreams 5OO 

Chapter VI. — Cults of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sapona 501 

Authorities 501 

Alleged belief in a Great Spirit 501 

The great mystery a modern deity 501 

Polytheism 502 

Worship 502 

Fasting 502 

Sacrifice 502 

The Okipa 502 

The Dahpike 503 

Cult of the Youi 505 

Absaroka fear of a white buffalo cow 505 

Mandan cults 506 

Mandan divinities 506 

Guardian spirits 507 

Mandan belief about serpents and giants 507 

Thunder lore of the Mandan 508 

Astronomical lore 508 

Mystery objects and places of the Mandan and Hidatsa 508 

The mystery rock 508 

Dreams 5IO 

Oracles 510 

Fetiches 5IO 

Folkloie 511 

Sorcery 5II 

.Jugglery 512 

Ghost lore 512 

The future life 512 

Four as a mystic number among the Mandan 513 

Hidatsa cults 513 

Hidatsa divinities 513 

Animism 514 

Worship of the elements, etc 514 

Serpent worshij) 514 

Fetiches 515 

Tribal fetiches 515 

Personal fetiches 515 

Oracles 516 

Dreams 516 

Berdaches 516 

Astronomical lore 517 

Food lore 517 

Four souls in each human being 517 

Sorcery 517 

Disposal of the dead 518 

Hidatsa belief as to future existence 518 

Sapona cults 518 



358 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

CiiAPTKR VII. — Concluding remarks 520 

Peet ou Indian religious 520 

The author's reply 521 

Cults of the elenieuts 522 

The fovir (juarters 524 

Symbolic colors 527 

Colors in personal names 533 

The earth powers 534 

Earth gentes 534 

The lire powers 534 

Fire gentes 536 

The wiud-makei s 536 

Wind gentes 537 

Each quarter reckoned as three 537 

Names referring to other worlds 537 

The water powers 537 

Water people 538 

Cautions and queries 538 

Composite names 539 

Personal names from horned beings 541 

Names derived from several homogeneous objects or beings 542 

Return of the spirit to the eponym 542 

Functions of gentes and subgeutes 542 

The " Messiah craze " 544 

Epilogue 544 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Paga 
Plate XLIV. Siouan tents (A, tent of jejequta; B, tent of Mazi-jinga 

(man in the sun) ; C, tent of Heqaga; D, tent of Kase-^-a"ba's 

father; £", tent of Hiipeta, Sr., and Agaha-wacnce) 361 

*^ XLV. Camping circle at the time of the sun dance 454 

' XLVI. The danciug lodge 458 

XLVII. Scarification of candidates (1, Ok^ska nazin; 2, Ptepa 

kin waci 460 

■ XLVIII. The sun dance 462 

XLIX. A suspended devotee 464 

L. The double woman 480 

Fig. 156. George Miller's personal mystery decoration 394 

157. A variant of I'ig. 156 394 

158. Robe of Wanukige 395 

159. Tent of Wanukige 396 

160. Robe of 0aqube 396 

161. Robeof ^ahe-i^ap'e 397 

162. Generic decoration referring to night, etc 397 

163. Tent of A''pa"-ska, Sr 398 

164. Robe of A"pa"-8ka, Sr 399 

165. Tent of Mazi-jiiiga (ghost vision) 399 

166. A tent of Niku^ib^ia" 399 

167. Another tent of Niku(iib(fa° 399 

168. Blanket of Cuija ma^c^i" 400 

169. Tent of x^sa" ; vision of a cedar 401 

170. Tent of xesa" ; sun and rainbow vision 401 

171. Cornstalk decoration of the tents of Fire Chief and Waqaga 402 

172. Robe of Ni-(factage 403 

173. Dulja-ma»f i'"s father's tent 403 

174. Ma»tcu-na"ba's tent 403 

175. Wacka'-lii's tent 404 

176. Tent of an unknown Omaha 404 

177. Tent of xebi'a 405 

178. Tent of a Kausa who had an eagle vision 405 

179. Kansa decorated tent 406 

180. Kansa decorated tent 406 

181. Ma"ze-guhe'8 robe 406 

182. Ma"ze-guhe'8 tent 407 

183. Duba-nia"^;i"'s father's blanket 407 

184. lukesabc tent decoration 408 

185. luke-sabe tent decoration 409 

186. Waqaga's robe 409 

187. Sacred tent in which the ]tole was ke])t 413 

188. Bear Butte, South Dakota 449 

359 



360 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

Fig. 189. The "u-ma-nc" symbol 451 

190. Eagle- wing flute 455 

191. The tent of preparation and the dancing lodge 459 

192. The ghost lodge 487 

193. The (fatada gentile circle 523 

191. The four elements, etc 523 

195. Kiuisa order of invoking winds, etc 525 

196. Tsiou (Osage) order of i)lacing the four sticks, etc 525 

197. Pa"qka (Osage) order of placing the four sticks, etc 526 

198. Ka"se (Osage) order of circnmambulation 526 

199. Showing how the Osage prepared the scalp for the dance 526 

200. Omaha lightnings and the four quarters 527 



Eleventh Annual Report_Plate_)^ 



jureau of Ethnolo_gy. 



^ 




V 





jr\^ nn' 




SIOUAN TENTS. 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



By James Owen Dob.se v. 

( !l A r IE ]i I, 

INTRODUCTION. 

DEFINITIONS OF 'MiULT" AND "SIOT AN.*' 

§ 1. Cult, as used in this article, meaus a system of religious belief 
and worship, especially the rites and ceremonies emi)loyed in suchAvor- 
ship. The pre.sent article treats of the cults of a few of the Siouau 
tribes — that is, with two exceptions, of such tribes as have been visited 
by the author, 

"Siouan".is a term originated by the Bureau of Ethnology. It is 
derived froin " Sioux," the popular name for those Indians who call 
themselves "Dakota"' or "Lakota." the latter being the Teton appella- 
tion. "Siouau" is used as an adjective, but, unlike its primitive.it 
refers not only to the Dakota tribes, but alst> to the entire linguistii* 
stock or fwuuly. 

SIOUAN FAMILY. 

The Siouau family inchides the J>akota, Assiniboin, Omaha, Ponka, 
<'s;i<jre, Kansa, Ivwapa, luvv.i, Oto, Missouri, Winnebago, Mandan, 
Iliriatsa, Crow, Tut*;lo, iJiloxj, Catawba, and other Indians. The 
t5apoua, wlio are now extinct, probably belonged to this family. 

The author was missionary to the Ponka Indians, in what is now 
part of Nebraska, from 1871 to 1873. Since 1878 he has .acquired 
native texts and other information from tbc Omaha, Ponka, Osage, 
Kansa, Winnebago, Iowa, Oto, Missouri, and Dakota. 

In seeking information respecting the ancient beliefs of the Indians 
the author iias always found it expedient to question the Indian when 
no int.er]jrt'ter was present. 

AUTHOKITIKS. 

§ 2. This study is based for the most part ujjon statements made by 
Indians, though several publications were consulted during the prepa 

t ;c, >n ivf rlw. n:Vl: im) ,i^ll< (•Irn.i.r - 



362 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 

The following Indians had become Christians before the author met 
them : Joseph La Fleche, Frank La Fleche, John Big Elk, and George 
Miller, all Omaha. Joseph La Fleche, who died in 1888, was the leader 
of the civilization party in the Omaha tribe after 1855. He was at one 
time a head chief. He spoke several Indian languages, having spent 
years among other tribes, including the Pawnee, when he was in the 
service of the fur company. His son, Frank, has been in the Indian 
Bureau at Washington since 1881. The author has obtained consider- 
able linguistic material from the father and son. The father, with Two 
Crows, aided the author in the summer of 1882 in revising his sociologic 
notes, resulting in the preparation of "Omaha Sociology," which was 
published in the third annual report of the director of the Bureau of 
Ethnology. John Big Elk, a full Omaha, of the Elk geus, furnished 
an article on "Sacred Traditions and Customs," and several historical 
papers, published in " Contributions to Xorth American Ethnology, 
Vol. VI." George Miller, of the Ictasanda or Thunder gens, is a full 
Omaha, from whom was obtained nearly half of Chapter iii, including 
most of the Omaha illustrations. 

The following Indians were not Christians : Gahige, Two Crows, 
^|afi"-na"paji, and Samuel Fremont, all Omaha; Xuda"-ax-a, a Ponka; 
and the Kansa, Osage, Missouri, Iowa, and Winnebago informants. 

Two Crows has been connected in several ways with the ancient 
organizations of his people. He has 1 een a head man, or nikagahi, 
being thus an ex-ofiicio member of the class whicli exercised the civil 
and religious functions of the state. He has been a policeman during 
the buffalo hunt. He has acted as captain, or war chief, and he is the 
leading doctor in the order of Buffalo shamans, being the keeper of the 
"sweet medicine." 

^jafi"-na"paji, or He-who-fears-not-the-sight-of-a-Pawnee, is a member 
of the Black Bear subgens, and he is also one of the servants of the 
Elk gens, it being his duty to be present at the sacred tent of that 
gens, and to assist in the ceremonies pertaining to the invocation of 
the Thunder Beings. 

Gahige was the chief of the Inke-sabe, a Buffalo gens, and at the 
time of his death he was the keeper of the two sacred pipes. 

Samuel Fremont is a member of the Eagle subgens. He came to 
Washington in the autumn of 1888 and assisted the author till Feb- 
ruary, 1889. 

iSruda"-axa is a chief of a part of the Thunder-Being gens of the Pouka. 
The author has known him since 1871. 

The other Indian authorities need not be named, as they are in sub- 
stantial agreement. 

The following authorities were consulted in the preparation of the 
Dakota and Assiniboin chapter: 

BiuviEK (John), a Dakota, MS. Tetou texts. 1888. Translated by himself. Bu- 
reau of Ethnology. 



AUTHORITIES ALPHABET. 



3G3 



BusHOTTER (George), a Dakota. MS. Teton texts. 1887-'S8. Translated l)y .1. 

Owen Dorsey. Mureau of Etliuology. 
Fletcheh (Miss Alice C), The Suu-dauce of tbeOgalalla Sioux. lu Proc. Am. 

Assoc. Adv. Sci., Moutreal meeting, 1882, pp. 580-.584. 
Fletcher (Miss Alice C), several articles in Rept. Peabodv Museimi, vol.S, 1884 

pp. 260-333. 
Hovey (Rev. H. C), "Eyay Sliah," in Am. Antiquarian, Jan., 1887, pp. 35, 36. 
Long (Maj. S. H. ), Skiff Voyage to Falls of St. Anthony. In Minn. Histor. Soc. 

Coll., vol. II, pt. 1, pp. 18, 19, 5,5. 
Lynd (J. W.), Religion of the Dakotas. In Minn. Histor. Soc. Coll.. vol. ii. pt. 2, 

pp. 57-84. 
Pond (G. H.), Dakota Superstitions. In Minn. Histor. Soc. Coll., vol. ii pt 3 i)i> 

32-62. 
RiGGS (S. R.), Theogony of the Sioux. In Am. Antiquarian, vol. ii, No. 4 i)p, '-•65- 

270. 

. In Am. Antiq.. vol. V. 1883, p. 149. 

. In Am. Philolog. Assoc. Proc, 3d An. Sess., 1872, pp. 5, 6. 

. Tah-koo Wah-kon, or. The Gospel Among the Dakotas, 1869. 

Say (Thos.), in James (E.), Account of Long's Esped. Rocky Mts., vol i, Phil,. 1823. 
Shea (J. Gilmary), Am. Cath, Missions, N. Y. (after 1854). 
Smet ( Rev. P. J. de). Western Missions .and Missionaries. X. Y. (n. d.). 
WoODBURN (Dr. J. M., .Tr.), MS. Letter and Teton Vocabulary, 1890. Bureau of 

Ethnology. 

ALPHABET. 



§ 3, With the exception of seven letters taken from Eiggs's Dakota 
Dictionary, and which are used only in the Dakota words, the characters 
used in recording- the Indian words occurring in this paper belong to 
the alphabet adopted by the Bureau of Ethnology. 



a, as in father 

*a, an initially exploded a. 

S,, as in what, or as o in not. 

'a, an initially exploded a. 

ii, as in hat. 

c, as sh in she. See s. 

0, a medial sh, a sonant-surd. 

c (Dakota letter), as ch in church. 
5, as //(. in thin. 

5, a medial 5, sonant-surd. 
^, as th in the. 

e, as in theij. 

'e, an initially exploded e. 

6, as in (fct. 

'e, an initially exploded c. 

g, as in go. 

g (in Dakota), tjh. See x. 

q (in Osage), an h after a pTire or nasal- 
ized vowel, expelled through the mouth 
with the lips wide apart. 

Ii (in Dakota), kh, etc. See q. 

i, as in machine. 

% an initially exploded i. 

1, as in 2)in. 



J, as 2 in mnre. or as / in the French 

Jacques. 
■s[. a medial k. a sonant-surd. 
k", an exploded k. See next letter, 
k (in Dakota), an exploded k. 
ij (in Dakota), after a vowel has the sound 

of « in the French hon. See ". 
m (in Kansa), a medial m, a sound l)ctwcfn 

m and b. 
ii, as «// in sing. 
hn, its initial sound is expelled from the 

nostrils and is scarcely heard, 
o, as in no. 

'o, an initially exploded o. 
d, a medial b or ]>, a sonant-surd, 
p', an exploded p. 
q, as German ch in ach. See h. 
s, a medial z or s, a sonant-snrd. 
s (in Dakota), as sh in she. Sec c. 
%. a medial d or t, a sonant-surd. 
t', an exploded t. 
n, as 00 in tool, 
'xi, an initially exploded u. 
G, as 00 in foot. 



364 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULT8. 

11, a 80uud between o and n. ;o, a medial tc, a sonant-surd. 

ii, as in German kiihl, siiss. ts', »n exploded ts. 

X, gh, or nearly the Arabic ghahi. See g. ^^e, a medial ts, a sonant-surd. 

z (in Dakota), as z in azure. See j. ai, as in aisle. 

dj, asj in judge. an, as ow in how. 

tc, as c/i- in church. See <■. yu, as « in i«He, or cic in/ew. 

tc', an exploded tc. 

Tne following- have the ordinary English sounds: b, d, h, k, 1, m, n, 
p, r, s, t, w, y, and /,. A superior n (") after a vowel (compare the Da- 
kota ij) has the sound of the French n in bon, vin, etc. A plas sign ( + ) 
after any letter prolongs it. 

The vowels 'a, 'e, 'i, 'o, 'u, and their modifications are styled initially 
exploded vowels for want of a better appellation, there being in each 
case an initial explosion. These vowels cannot be called "breaths," 
as no aspiration is used with any of them; nor can they be spoken of 
as "guttural breaths," as they are approximately or partially pectoral 
sounds. They have been found by the author not only in the Siouan 
languages, but also in some of the languages of western Oregon. In 
1880 a brother of the late Gen. Armstrong, of Hampton, Va., who was 
born on one of the Hawaiian islands, informed the author that this 
class of vowel sounds occurred in the language of his native land. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

The abbreviations in the interlinear translations are as follows : 

sub. — subject. Ig. —long, 

ob. — object. cv. — curvilinear. 

St. — sitting. ]d. — plural, 

std. — standing. sing. — singtilar, 

reel. — reclining. an. — animate, 

mv. — moving. in. — inanimate, 
col. — collective. 



CHAPTEE II. 

DEFINITIONS. 

ALLEGED BELIEF IN A GKEAT SPIRIT. 

§ 4. It has been asserted for several hundred years that the North 
American Indian was a believer in one Great Spirit prior to the com- 
ing of the Avhite race to this continent, and that, as he was a monothe- 
ist, it was an easy matter to convert liim to Christianity. Indians have 
been represented as speaking of "The Great Spirit," "Tbe Master of 
Life," etc., as if the idea of tlie one and only God was familiar to our 
aborigines during the pre-Columbian pcri(jd. 

While the author is unwilling- to commit himself to a general denial 
of this assertion, he has been forced to conclude that it needs consid- 
erable moditication, at least so far as it refers to the tribes of the 
Siouan stock. (See §§ 7,15,21-43, 72-79,92-99,311,312,322-320,341-316.) 

On close investigation it will be found that in many cases Indians 
have been quick to adopt the phrases of civilization in communicating 
with white i)eople, but in speaking to one another they use their 
own terms. The student of the uncivilized races must ever be on his 
guard against leading questions and tlieir answers. The author has 
learned by experience that it is safer to let the Indian tell his own 
story in his own words than to endeavor to question him in such a 
manner as to reveal what answers are desired or expected. 

§ 5. In 1883 the author published an article on "The Keligion of the 
Omahas and Ponkas," in The American Antiquarian of Chicago. 
Since then he has obtained additional data, furnishing him with many 
undesigned coincidences, whicli lead him to a broader view of the sub- 
ject. 

PHENOMENA DIVIDED INTO HUMAN AND SUPERHUMAN. 

§0. In considering the subject from an Indian's point of view, one 
must avoid speaking of the supernatural as distinguished from the nat- 
ural. It is safer to divide phenomena as they appear to the Indian 
mind into the human and the superhuman, as many, if not most natural 
phenomena are mysterious to the Indian. Nay, even man himself may 
become mysterious by fasting, j)rayer, and vision. 

One fruitful source of error has been a misunderstanding of Indian 
terms and phrases. It is very important to attempt to settle the exact 
meanings of certain native words and phrases ere we proceed further 
with the consideration of the subject. 

365 



366 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

TERMS FOR '' MYSTERIOUS.'' "LICtHTNING," ETC. 

§ 7. The attentiou of the author having been called to the article on 
"Serpent Symbolism" of the Iroquoian languages, by Mr. Hewitt' of 
the Bureau of Ethnology, a similar investigation of the Siouan terms 
was made, the results of which are now presented. In connection with 
the terms for " serpent," Mr. Hewitt showed how they are related in 
the languages with which he was familiar with other terms, such as 
"demon," "devil," "wizard," "witch," "subtile," "occult," "myste- 
rious," and "supernatural." 

In Dakota we find the following: Waka", mysterious, wonderful, in- 
comprehensible, often rendered "holy" by the missionaries; waka"-hdi 
(in Santee), waka'^-kdi (in Yankton), lightning, perhaps containing a 
reference to a zigzag line or forked lightning; waka" etco", to jiractice 
sleight of hand; and wa"niducka, serpent. Thereare many derivatives 
of waka", among which are, Taku Waka°, literally " something mysteri- 
ous," rendered "some one mysterious," or "holy being," and Waka"- 
tai5ka, literally, " Great mysterious (one)," both of which terms are now 
applied to God by the missionaries and their converts, though Waka"- 
tauka is a name for the Thunder-being. 

In Eiggs's alphabet (Contr. ]S[. A. Ethn., Vol. vii), these words are 
thus written: Wakaij, wakaijhdi, wakaijkdi, wakaij ecoij, waijmduska, 
Taku Wakaij, and Wakaijtaijka. One of the Dakota words for "aged" 
is ka" (kaij in Eiggs's alphabet) ; but though this refers to persons we 
can not tell whether it is related to waka" (or wakaij). 

In the ^'egiha, the language spoken by the Ponka and Omaha, Wa- 
kanda means " the mysterious " or " j>owerful one," and it is applied in 
several senses. It is now used to denote the God of monotheism. 
Some of the old people say that their ancestors always believed in a 
supreme Wakauda or Mysterious Power. It sometimes refers to the 
Thunder-being. On one occasion, a Ponka shaman, Cramped Hand, 
said to the author: "I am a Wakanda." Wakandagi, as a noun, 
means a subterranean or water monster, a large horned reptile men- 
tioned in the myths, and still supposed to dwell beneath the blufis 
along the Missouri Eiver. With this term compare the Dakota Uiikteqi 
(Uijktelii, of Eiggs) and the Winnebago Waktceqi, the latter having 
given a name to the Water Monster gens (Waktceqi ikikaratcada). 
Wakandagi is sometimes used adverbially, as, si wakandagi, he is won- 
derfully stingy ! le wakandagi, he (a small child) speaks surprisingly 
well (for one so young) ! x^"fi" wakandagi, he runs very well (for one 
so young) ! Ma"(|'i" wakandagi, he (a small child) walks very well! 
Wakandife, to be in great haste, perhaps contains the idea of putting 
forth a great effort in order to accomplish something speedily. Wes'a, 
a serpent, is not related to the others just given. Nor can the word for 
"wizard" or "conjurer" be found related to them. In Kansa, W^a- 



Aiii. Aiitbropologiet, April. 1889, pp. 179,180. 



noRSEY.] OTHER OMAHA AND PONKA TERMS. 367 

kaucla is used of superhuman beings or powers, as in Omalia and Ponka, 
but the author never heard a shaman apply tlie term to himself. Wa- 
kandagi has another meaning, mysterious, wonderful, incomprehensible, 
as, nika wakandagi, mysterious man, shaman. Juggler, doctor; uaniiu"ba 
Avakandagi, mysterious or sacred pii)e; wakandagi wagaxe, the sleight- 
of-hand tricks of the mysterious men and women. Wakanda qudje, the 
gray mysterious one, the elephant. Waka" does not mean serpent, 
but pumpkin, answering to the Omaha and l*onka, m ata", and to the 
Osage, wakqa" and wat<]a". jtyets'a (almost, Byets'a) is the Kausa 
word for a serpent. 

In Osage, Waka"^a answers to tlie Ivansa Wakanda, and Waqka"- 
^a-3[i is the same as the Kausa, Wakandagi. Wets'a is a serpent. In 
Kwajia, Waka"!;a>[i seems to answer to the Kausa Wakandagi. 

In j^Mwere (Iowa, Oto, Missouri), Waka^^a is the same as the Kansa 
Wakanda. Waka" means a serpent. Waka" kijfraijoe, the Serpent 
gens. Wa hu-pri", mysterious, as a person or animal; but wa-qo-nyi- 
ta", mysterious, as an inanimate object. 

In the Winnebago, three names for superhuman beings have been 
found. One is Wa^pi"se or Wagu"ze, which can not be translated; an- 
other is Ma"'u"-na, Earth-maker, the third being Qo-pi"-ne qe-te-ra, 
Great Mysterious One. (^)opi"ne seems related to waqopini (with 
which comi)are the x-^i^^^^i'e^ waliupri"), a term used to distinguish 
people of other races from Indians, just as in Dakota wacitcu" (in 
Eiggs's alphabet, wasicuij), nowused for " white man,'' '• black man," etc., 
retains in the Teton dialect its ancient meaning of sui)erhuman being 
or guardian spirit. Wakawa"x, in Winnebago, denotes a wit(;h or 
wizard. Waka"-na is a serpent, and waka" ikikaratca-da, the Serpent 
gens; Waka"tca, or Waka"tca-ra, thunder, the Thuuder- Being; Waka"- 
tcaQka-raj a shaman or mysterious man. 

OTHER OMAHA AND PONKA TERMS. 

§ 8. Other terms are given as being pertinent to the subject. They 
occur in the language of the Omaha and Ponka. Qube, mysterious as a 
l^erson or animal (all animals were persons in ancient times); but a 
mysterious inanimate object is spoken of as being " waqube." Uqube 
means the mysteriousness of a human being or animal. Uqube- 
ac^a^ica", pertaining to such mysteriousuess. Wakandajafica", per- 
taining or referring to Wakanda. Nikie is a term that refers to a 
mythical ancestor, to some part of his body, to some of his acts, or to 
some ancient rite ascribed to him. A "nikie name" is a personal 
name of such a character. Ifa'e^'e, literally, ''to pity him on account 
of it, granting him certain power." Its ijrimary reference is to the 
mysterious aninuil, but it is transferred to the person having the 
vision, hence, it means "■ to receive mysterious things from an ani- 
mal, as in a vision after fasting; to see as in a vision, face to face (not 



368 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

in a dream); to see when awake, and in a mysterious manner having 
a conversation with the animal about mysterious thiugs," 

§ 9. The names for grandfather, grandmother, and old man are 
terms of veneration, superhuman beings having these names applied 
to them in invocations. (See §§ 15, 99.) 

SIGNIFICANCE OF PERSONAL NAMES AND KINSHIP TERMS. 

In a note up n "The Religious Ceremony of the Four Winds or 
Quarters, as Observed by the Santee Sioux," Miss Fletcher i remarks: 
'' A name implies relationship, and consequently protection; favor and 
intiuenee are claimed from the source of the name, whether this be 
the gens or the vision. A name, therefore, shows the affiliation of the 
individual; it grades him, so to speak, and he is apt to lean upon its 
implied power. * * * The sacred import of a name in the mind of 
the Indian is indicated in that part of the ceremony where the "Some- 
thing that moves" seems to overshadow and inclose the child, and 
addresses the wakan man as father. The wakan man replies, calling 
the god, child, at the same time invoking the supernatural protection 
and care for the boy, as he lays at the feet of the messenger of Un- 
seen Power the offerings of gifts and the honor of the feast. The per- 
sonal name^ among Indians, therefore, indicates the protecting pres- 
ence of a deity, and must, therefore, partake of tlie ceremonial charac- 
ter of the Indian's religion." 

In this ceremony the sui)erhuman being is addressed by the term 
m\i^]ymg juniority, and the human being, the wakan man, by that asso- 
ciated with seniority, an apparent reversal of the usual custom ; but, 
doubtless, there can be found some explanation for this seeming excep- 
tion to the rule. 

MYTH AND LEGEND DISTINGUISHED FROM THE SUPERHUMAN. 

§ 10, The Omaha, Ponka, and cognate tribes distinguish at the pres- 
ent day between the myth (higa", higu) and the legend or story (iu^a, 
etc.) on the one hand, and what on the other hand is called " Wakau- 
da^afica"," "■ nqubea;af ica"," and " if a'efea^iaf ica"." Tlie former are told 
only for amusement and are called, "iusicta" iu(fa," lying tales. They 
are regarded a^ "iqawa(|;ea;afica"," pertaining to the ludicrous. With 
tliis may be compared the statements of Lang :' 

"Among the lowest and most backward, as among the most ad- 
vanced races, there coexist the mythical and the religious elements in 
belief. The rational factor (or what approves itself to us as the rational 
factor) is visible in religion; the irrational is prominent in myth.'' 
* * * "The rational and irrational aspects of mythology and religion 
may be of coeval antiquity for all that is certainly known, or either of 

' Op. cit., p. 295. 

2 And also tte kiuship terui in some cases. 

sMyth. Kitual, and Religion, pp. 328,329. 



DORSEYl MYTH, ETC., DISTINGUISHED FROM THE SUPERHUMAN. 309 

them, in the dark baekwanl of mortal experience, may liave preceded 
the other." The autlior has Ibuud certain Indian myths which abound 
in what to the civilized mind is the grossest obscenity, and that too 
withont the slightest reference to the origin of any natural phenomena. 
Myths of this class appear to have been told from a love of the obscene. 
Xothing of a mysterious or religious character can be found in them. 
Perhaps such myths are of modern origin; but this nuist remain an 
enigma. 

§ 11, The Omaha and Ponka are in a transition state, hence many of 
their old customs and beliefs are disappearing. Some have been lost 
within the past fifty years, others within the last decade, according to 
unim])eachable testimony. The Ponka are more conservative than the 
Omaha, and the Kansa and Osage are more so than the Ponka, in the 
estimation of the author. 

§ IL*. Though it has been said that the Indians feared to tell myths 
except on winter nights (and some Indians have told this to the author), 
the author has had no trouble in obtaining myths during the day at 
various seasons of the year. 

§ 13. James Alexander, a full Winnebago of the Wolf gens and a non- 
Christian, told the author that the myths of the Winnebago, called 
wai-ka"-na by them, have undergone material change in the course of 
transmission, and that it is very probable that many of them are en 
tirely difterent from what they were several generations ago. Even in 
the same tribe at the present day. the author has found no less than 
three versions of the same myth, and there may be others. 

The myth of the Big Turtle is a casein point.' The narrator acknowl- 
edged that he had made some additions to it himself. 

§ 14. Xo fasting or ]>rayer is re(iuired])efore one can tell a myth. Far 
ditterent is it with those things which are " Wakanda;afica"," or are 
connected with visions or the secret societies. This agrees in the main 
with what Mr, James Mooney. of the Bureau of Ethnology, has learned 
from the Cherokee of North Carolina. Mr. Frank H. Cushing has 
found that the Zufii Indians distinguish between their folk-lore and 
their cult-lore, i. e„ between their legends and mythic tales on tlie one 
hand, and their dramatized stories of creation and their religious ob- 
servances on the other, a special name being given to each class of 
knowledge. To them the mythic tales and folk-lore in general are but 
the fringe of the garment, not the garment itself. When they enact 
the creation storj^, etc, they believe that they are repeating the cir 
cumstances represented, and that they are then surrounded l)y the 
very beings referred to in the sacred stories. Similar beliefs were 
found by Dr. Washingtcni Matthews, as shown in his article entitled 
"The Prayer of a Xavajo Shaman," published in the American Anthro- 
pologist of Washington, D. C, for Ainil, 1S88. 



■ See Contr. N. A. Ethn. Vol. vi, 271-277. 
11 ETH 24 



370 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

§ 15. At the same time there seems to be some couneetiou between 
certain myths and the personal names called, '' nikie names." This will 
be considered in detail in a future monograph on " Indian Personal 
Names," now in course of preparation. One example must suffice for 
the present. In the ;^ja"ze gens of the Omaha there is a nikie name, 
^l^asi duba, Four Peaks. The author did not understand its derivation 
until he studied the myth of TTaxige and observed the prayers made in 
gathering the stones for the sweat-bath. Each stone was invoked as a 
venerable man (see § 9), the Four Peaks were mentioned several times, 
and the two superior deities or chief mysterious ones (Wakanda :^anga 
ag^au3ja"ha" hnankace) were invoked.^ 

This last refers to the Wakanda residing above and the one in the 
ground. It is therefore possible that in past ages the Siouan tribes did 
not differentiate between the myth and what is " Wakanda:^a^ica"." But 
we have no means of proving this. 

§ 16. Most of the Omaha governmental instrumentalities (" wewaspe") 
were " Wakanda^a(|;ica''," but there were things that were " Wakanda- 
:^af ica"," which were not " wewasi)e," such as the law of catamenial se- 
clusion. 

I Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. VI, pp. 234,242 



(MI A V T i: U 111. 

CULTS OF THE OMAHA. PONKA. KANSA. AND OSAGE. 

BELIEFS AND PKACTICES >-OT FtMND. 

§ 17. 'riu'i*' ;iro (.'eiTaiu beliefs and praerit-es whieli have nut been 
tV)nn(l among the tour Tribes whose cults are treated ot' in this chapter. 
Anoestor.s were not worshiped. They were addressed reverently when 
alive, and when they dieil it was not contrary to custom to refer to 
them by name, nor did their deatlis in\dh'e the change "t' name tV>r a 
single object or phenonuniou. It was a very comnuui oi'currence for 
the name of the deceased to be assumed by a surviving kinsman. 
This is shown by genealogical tables of a few Siouan tribes, the ma- 
terial for which was collected by the author, and which will form part 
of his monograph on "Indian Personal Nanu^s. " now in course i>f 
preparatiim fiu' publication by the Ihireau of Ethnoh)gy. 

§ IS. They never heanl of Satan or the devil until they learned of 
him from the white people. Now ihe> have atlopted the terms, "Wa- 
iii^xe piiijl," ••lng(i'a"xe piiijl," and •• Wakauda i>i;ijl." The tirst is used 
by the Omaha and Ponka, the others were heard onl> among the Poid^a. 
They have a certain saying, applicable tt> a young man who is a liar, 
or who is bad in sonu> other way: "Wanaxe piiiji ega" aha"." i. e. 
"He is like the bad spirit I" This beciuues, when addressed to tlu> bad 
person, '-Wanaxe piii'ji e(|'ikiga"'-qti ja"'," i. e. "You act just like the 
(or a) bad spirit." 

§ 19. Though it has been said that hero worship was unknown among 
the Omaha and Ponka, it has been learned that Omaha mothers usi-d 
to scare their uunUy children by telling them that Icibaj'i ^a hero of the 
j^e-sinde gens) or his friend j/>xuja" (a hero of the \ja"/.e gens) would 
catch them if they did iu>t behave. There was no wiu'shii) of demi- 
gods, as demigods were unknown. Twi) Crows ami Joseph La Fleche 
said that phallic wi»rship was unknow n. and they were surprised to 
hear that it had been practiced by any tribe. (See § K>2, l(>4.) As 
the Ponka obtaintnl the sun-dance from their Dakota neigld)ors, it is 
probable that they practiced the phallic cult. 

§ 1*0. Totems and shamans were not worshi]>ed, though they are still 
reverenced. Altars or altar-stt>nes were unknown. Incense was not 
used, unless by this name we refer to the odor of tobacco snu)ke as it 
ascended to the Thunder being, or to the use of cedar fronds in the 
sweat lodge. There were no human sacriticissj and cannibalism was 
not practiced. 

371 



372 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS, 

OMAHA, PONKA, AND KANSA BELIEF IN A WAKANDA. 

§ 21. According- to Two Crows and Joseph La Flecbe, the ancestors 
of the Omaha and Ponka believed that there was a Supreme Being, 
whom they called Wakanda. "Wakanda t'a"i te efega^i, they be- 
lieved that Wakanda existed." They did not know where He was, 
nor did they undertake to say how He existed. There was no public 
gathering at which some of the people told otiiers that there was a 
Wakanda, nor was there any general assembly for the purpose of oft'er- 
ing Him worship and prayer. Each i^erson thought in his heart that 
Wakanda existed. Some addressed the sun as Wakanda, though 
many did not so regard him. Many addressed Wakanda, as it were, 
blindly or at random. Some worshiped the Thunder-being under this 
name. This was especially the case when men undertook to goon the 
war path. 

'Mr. Say recorded of the Kansa: '' They say that they have never 
vseeu Wakanda, so they cannot pretend to personify Him: but they 
have often heard Him speak in the thunder. They often wear a shell 
which is in honor or in representation of Him, but they do not pretend 
that it resembles Him, or has anything in common with his form, or- 
ganization, or size." 

SEVEN GREAT WAKANDAS. 

§ 22. ja<|;i°-na"-paji said that there were seven great Wakandas, as fol- 
lows: " Ugahanadaze or Darkness, Maxe or the Upper World, X'^i!^^*" 
or the Ground, Ingfa" or the Thunder-being, Mi" or the Sun, Nia"ba 
or the Moon, and the Morning Star. The principal Wakanda is in the 
upper world, above everything." (This was denied by Joseph La 
Fleche and Two Crows; see § 93.) The author thought at first that 
these were the powers worshiped by jaf i"-na''paji and the members of 
his gens or subgens; but subsequent inquiries and statements oc- 
curring in the course of texts furnish cumulative evidence favoring 
the view that some or all these powers had many believers among the 
Omaha and the cognate tribes. 

INVOCATION OF WARMTH AND STREAMS. 

§ 23. jaf i"-na"paji said that Macte or Warmth was a good Wakanda. 
Ni fi", the flowing Stream, according to him, was thus addressed by a 
man who wished to ford it: "You are a person and a Wakanda. 1, 
too, am a person. I desire to pass through you and reach the other 
side." Two Crows denied this, saying that his peo])le never i^rayed 
to a stream; but George Miller said that it was true, for his father, 
Little Soldier, prayed to a stream when he was on the war ])ath, and 
that such invocations were made only in time of war. 



'See . Taunts, Acconnt Exped. to Kocky Mouutains, vol. I, p. 126. 



uoRSEY.i PRAYER. 373 

PRAYER TO WAKANDA. 

§ 24. Prayer to Wakaiida, said La Fleohe and Two Crows, was not 
made tor small matters, such as going- fishing, but only for great and 
important undertakings, such as going to war or starting on ajourney. 
When a man wished to travel he first Ment alone to a bkiff, where he 
prayed to Wakanda to help him and his family by protecting them 
during his absence and by granting him a successful Journey. At a 
time when the Ponka were without food, Horse-with-yellow-hair, or 
Cange-hi"-zi. prayed to Wakanda on the liill beyond the Stony Butte. 
The latter is a prominent landmark in northern Nebraska (in what was 
Todd county, Dakota, in 1871 -'73), about 7 miles from the T^Iissouri 
Kiver and the Ponka Agency (of l87()-'77)'. Several Omaha said that 
the places for prayer were rocks, high bluffs, and mountains. "All 
Omaha went to such places to pray, but they did not pray to the visible 
object, though they called it Grandfather.''— (Frank La Fleche.) They 
smoked towards the invoked object and placed gifts of killickinnick, 
etc., upon it. Compare with this the Dakota custom of invoking a 
bowlder on the prairie, calbng it Trinka"cida" (Tuijkaijsidaij).or Grand- 
father, synd)olizing the Earth-being.'^ Though it has been said that a 
high bluff was merely a place for praying to \Vakanda, and that it was 
not itself addressed as Wakanda, the author has learned from mem- 
bers of the Omaha and Ponka tribes that when they went on the 
warpath for the first time, their nanu'S were then changed and one ot 
the old men was sent to the bluffs to tell the news to the various Wa- 
kandas, including the bluffs, trees, birds, insects, reptiles, etc.^ 

ACCESSORIES OK I'HAYEK. 

Among the accessories of prayer were the following: {a) The action 
called fistube by the Omaha and Ponka, ri^towe by the three ^oiwere 
tribes, and yuwi"tapi (yuwiijtapi) by the Dakota, consisting of the ele- 
vation of the suppliant's arms with the palms toward the object or the 
face of the being invoked, followed by a passage of the hand down- 
ward toward the ground, without touching the object or pi^-son (see 
§§ 28, 35, 3G). (b) The presentation of the pipe with the mouthpiece 
toward the power invoked (see §§ 20, 35, 40). (c) The use of smoke 
from the pipe (See § § 27, 30), or of the odor of burning cedar needles, as 
in the sweat lodge. {(I) The application of the kinship term, "grand- 
father,'' or its alternative, " venerable man," to a male power, and 
"grandmother" to a female power (see §§ 30, 31, 35, 39, 50, 00, etc.). 
(e) Ceremonial wailing or crying (Xage, to wail or cry— Dakota ceya. 
See § 100).^ (/) Sacrifice or offering of goods, auimals, pieces of the 

' See Jour. Amer. Folk-lore. vol. i, 'So. 1, j). 73. 

'See ; 5 132-130, and Tuijkaij.Aila, iu Rigss'.s Dakota-English nictionary. Coiitr. X. A. Etlinolojry, 
vol, VII. 

3 See Contr. N. A. Etliii.. vol. vi, pp. 372. 373. :!7C. and Omaha Socioloffy, in 3d Auu. Kept. Bur. Ethnol- 
ogy, pp. 324, 325. 

*Coutr. N. A. Ethn.. Vol. vi. p. 394. lines 10-1!) ; p. ,39.">, lines 14-16. 



374 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

suppliant's flesh, etc. In modern times the Kansa have substituted 
the lives of animals, as deer, grouse, etc., for those of human enemies 
(see §§28, 33, etc.). 

OMAHA AND KANSA EXPRESSIONS ABOUT WAKANDA. 

§ 25. Samuel Fremont said that before the advent of the white race 
the Omaha had certain expressions which they used in speaking of 
AVakanda. When an Indian met with unexpected g(^od fortune of any 
sort the people used to say, "Wakanda has given him some assist- 
ance.'" Or they might say, "Wakanda knows him."^ Sometimes 
they said, " Wakanda has planned for his own (i. e., for his friend, re- 
lation, or subject)."^ If a Kansa prospers, he says, "Wakan'da 
aka a"ma"'yiixii'dje aka' eyaii," i. e., •' Wakanda has indeed been look- 
ing at me !" And in speaking of the success of another, he saj'S, 
"Wakan'da aka nika yiiike uyii'xiidje akti eyau," i. e.," Wakanda has 
indeed been looking at the man." 

Samuel Fremont said that when an animal detected the approach of 
the hunter and consequently fled from him, the man j)rayed thus: 
Hau', Wakan'da, wani'ta wi^ a°<fa'i ei"te ci i"(|;eg(|;ize ega°. Ci wi"' 

Ho, Wakanda, quadruped one you gave per- again you take some- again one 

to me haps yours what 

hack 
from me 

wa^iouaa"fakife ka"bfega", 

you cause to appear I hope 

tome 

i. e., " Ho, Wakanda, you may have given me an animal, but now it 
seems that you have taken it from me. I hope that you will cause 
another to appear to me." But if the hunter shot at an animal and 
missed it, he said nothing. 

PONKA BELIEF ABOUT MALEVOLENT SPIEITS. 

§ 26. About eighteen years ago, the author was told by the Ponka, 
whose reservation Avas then in southern Dakota, that they believed 
death to be caused by certain malevolent spirits, whom they feared. In 
order to prevent future visits of such spirits, the survivors gave away 
all their property, hoping that as they were in such a wretched plight the 
S])irits would not think it worth while to make them more unhappy. 
At the burial of Mazi-kide, an Omaha, the author observed that some 
one approached the corpse and addressed it. In referring to this in 
1888, Samuel Fremont said that the speaker said, "Wakanda has 
caused your death." In telling this, Fremont used the singular, 
"Wakanda aka." On repeating this to George Miller, the latter said 
that it should have been "Wakanda ama," in the plural, " the Mysteri- 
ous Powers," as the Omaha believed in more than one Wakanda before 
they learned about the one God of monotheism. 



'Wakanda aka uiJia^i ega°. 'Wakanda aka ibaha°i. *Wakanda aka igi(fig<(a°i. 



DORSEY] AN OLD OMAHA CUSTOM. 375 

This agrees with what was learned about the Dakota by the late 
missionaries, Messrs. S. E. Riggs and G. H. Pond, and by the late 
James AV. Lyud, as stated in chapter v. 

AN OLD OMAHA CUS'iOM. 

§ 27. "Abicude," said Samuel Fremont, " is a word which refers to an 
old Omaha and Ponka custom, i. e., that of blowing the smoke downward 
to the ground while praying. The Omaha and Ponka used to hold the 
pipe in six directions while smoking : toward the four winds, the ground, 
and the upper world. The exact order has been forgotten by Fremont, 
but Lewis and Clarke have recorded the corresponding Shoshoni cus- 
tom. Oapt. Lewis tells how the Shoshoni chief, after lighting his pipe 
of transparent greenstone (instead of catlinite), made a speech, after 
which he pointed the stem of the pipe toward the four points of the 
heavens, beginning with the east and concluding Avith the north. After 
extending the stem thrice toward Capt. Lewis, he pointed it first to- 
ward the heavens and then toward the center of the little circle of 
guests, probably toward the ground, symbolizing the subterranean 
power. ' 

In addressing the four winds, a peculiar expression is employed by 
the Omaha: 

j^ade diiba hi<|;a^e (-jif i"ce, i" win'5[a°i-ga. Thou who causest the four 

Wind four youcause you (sing.) help ye me. 

it to reach who move 

tlifl-e 

winds to reach a place, help ye me! Instead of the singular classifier, 
^afi"ce, the regular plural, nankace, ye who sit, stand, or move, might 
have been expected. (See § ."JS.) 

In smoking toward the ground and upper world, the suppliant had 
to say, " I petition to you who are one of tlie two, j^ou who are reclin- 
ing on ycmr back, and to you who are the other one, sitting directly 
above us. Both of you help me!" "Here," said Fremont, "the 
gTound itself was addressed as a person." Two Crows said that some 
Omaha appealed to a subterranean Wakanda when their word was 
doubted, saying, "Pc'i'ige hidea;a aka a°nii'a"i," "The venerable man 
at the bottom hears me." The author is unable to say whether this 
was X'^^*^^ 01' Wakandagi. (See § 37.) 

The following was recorded of the Omaha, and refers to a custom 
relating to the buffalo hunt.^ 

Ou coming iu sight of tlie herd, the huuters talk kindly to their horses, apply- 
ing to them the endearing names of father, brother, uncle, etc. They jietition 
them not to feur the bisons, but to run well ami keep close to them, but at the same 
time to avoid being gored. 

The party ^^having approached as near to the herd as they suppose the animals 
will jjermit without taking alarm, they halt to give the pipe bearer an opportunity 



'Lewis and Clarke, Expedition, ed. Allen, Dublin, vol. I, 1817, pp. 457, 458; also M'Vickars 
abridgment of the same, Harpers, K". Y., vol. I, 1842, p. 303. 
2 James's Account of Long's Exped., Phila., vol, i, 1823, p. 208. 



eyau. 

indeed. 


Cun'ge wjibli" ali kii"'bla eyau. 

Horse I bave I have I wisli indeed, 
tliem come back 


eyau. 

indeed. 


Haleje uraiblage. Haqi°' uuiiblage. 

Calico (shirt) I tell you Eobe 1 tell you 
about it. about it. 



376 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 

to perform the ceremony of smoking, which is considered necessary to their success. 
He lights his pipe, and remains a short time with his head inclined, and the stem 
of the pipe extended toward the hei'd. He then smokes, and puffs the smoke toward 
the bisons, and the earth, and tinally to the cardinal points successively. 

THE SUN A WAKANDA. 

§28, In the Osage traditions tbe "mysterious one of day" is invoked 
as " grandfather." ^ 

He replies that he is not the only Wakancja. That the Kansa wor- 
shiped the sun as a Wakanda appears from the following: "On one 
occasion, when the Kansa went against the Pawnees, the stick was set 
up for the mystic attack or ' waqpele gaxe.' The war captain addressed 
the rising sun thus : 

"Payi" aqli ku°'bla 

Pawnee I stun by I wish 
hitting 

Wayli'qpe cki ku"'bla 

Pulling down too I wish 
(a tbe) 

Haskii cki Payi° aqli-da"' mik'ii t4 mifike, Wakanda-e, e gii'a°yakiye- 

Klanket too Pawnee I stun when Igi\etowill I who O Wakanda! that you cause me to 

by hitting you (sit) ' be returning 

da". 

when. 

"I wish to kill a Pawnee! I desire to bring horses when I return. I 
long to pull down an enemy! I promise you a calico shirt and a robe. 
1 will give you a blanket also, O Wakanda, if you allow me to return in 
safety after killing a Pawnee!" When warriors performed the "wa- 
qpele gaxe" or the attack on the stick representing the foe, no member 
of the Lu or Thunder gens could participate. On such an occasion the 
warrior turned to the east and said: "A"ma"'pye kii°'bla au. Haska 

To follow me ( ?) I wish . Blanket 

or We follow it ( ?) 

uraiblage au, Wakanda-e," i. e., I wish my party to pass along the 

I tell you of it ■ () Wakanda 

road to the foe ( !). I promise you a blanket, O Wakanda (if I succeed ?). " 
On turning to the west he said: " U°'hii^ uraiblage an, Wakanda-e," 

Boiling I tell you of it . O Wakanda 

i. e., "I promise you a feast, O Wakanda (if 1 succeed'?)." 

When it was decided to perform the " waqpele gaxe," the duda"haiiga 
or war captain made one of the lieutenants carry the sacred bag, and 
two of the kettle tenders took bundles of sticks, which they laid down 
in the road. The four remaining kettle tenders remained at the camj)- 
ing place. The next morning all the warriors but those of the Lu gens 
went to the place where the sticks had been laid, drew a circle around 
the bundles, set up one of the sticks, and attacked it, as if it were a 
Pawnee. This ceremony often caused the death of real enemies. 

Among the Osage and Kansa prayer was made toward the rising- 
sun in the morning and towards the setting sun in the afternoon and 
evening. 

' Ha. witsiJiae. Gth Ann. Eept. Bur. Ethn., p. 385. line .=^0; p. 389. line 50; p. 391. line 4. etc. 



DORSEY.] THE SUN A WAKANDA. 377 

Among the Omalia and Kaiisa the head of a corpse is laid towards 
the east. For this reason no Omaha will consent to recline with his 
head towards that point. The Kausa lodges also are orientated, and 
so were those of tlie Omaha (see §51)). The east appears to symbolize 
life or the source thereof, but ' the west refers to death; so among the 
Osage the course of a war i)arty was towardsthe mythic or symbolic 
west, towards which point the entrances of the lodges were turned^ 
(see §§ 83 and SSi). 

Gahige, the late Omaha chief, said that when he was young all the 
Omaha prayed to the sun, holding up their hands with the palms to 
wards the sun and saying, '' Wakahda, (|*a'ea"'fa-ga," etc., i. e., '*0 
Wakanda, pity me!" They abstained from eating, drinking, and (or- 
dinary) smoking ti'oni sunrise to sunset ; but after sunset the restrictions 
were removed.-^ 

For four nights the men who thus prayed did not sleep at home. 
At the end of that period the task was finished. "Iwacka" gaxai,'' 
i. e., they made or gained superhuman power. They could thus pray at 
any time from the appearance of grass in the spring until the ground 
became frozen. 

THE OFFERIN<; OF TOBACCO. 

§ 21. In 1889 G-eorge Miller gave an account of \rhat he called "Nini 
bahai te,'* i. e. the offering or presentation of tobacco. Whether 
this phrase was ever used except in a religious or superhuman connec- 
tion is more than the author is able to say. Whenever the Indians 
traveled they used all the words which follow as they extended the 
pipe with the mouthpiece toward the sun : " Haii, niui gake' Wakan'da, 

Ho tobacco that Wakauda 

Ig. Ob. 

Mi'" (fe niiike'ce! Ujan'ge fifi^a ke ega'^qti uaha te a. Ingaxa-ga! 

Sun this you who sit Uoad your the .just so I follow will ! Make it for ine 

Ig. ob. itscourse 

Edada" ctecte uda"qti akipankifa'-ga ! Ed^da" juaji wi"' ededite ^V 

What soever very good ^-cause iiiclonHctit What inferior oue it is there if 

il)eta"aiiki(|;a-ga ! (|^i'-na" aniusta wafi'oua cfagfi"', ni-ufan'da (/'c^j-a" 

cause me to pass Only thou directly in siglit you sit island this 

around it above (us) idace 

('^fa^ska edega", ediida" wanita {^an'de ucka"'cka" (fa" bfngaqti nikaci"ga 

this large but what quadruped ground uiv. on it here the all person 

and there 

(fa"' ctfwa"' wi'" a"'ba ata"' i(|'aoni'g(j'a" ^T, ega"-na". Ada" wi'ija-na"- 

the soever one day how you decide for when always so. There- I ask a favor 

long ' him fore of you 

ma"' ha, Wakan'da" This may be rendered freely thus: "Ho, Mys- 

alone Wakanda 

terious Power, yon who are the Sun! Here is tobacco! I wish to 
follow your course. Grant that it may be so ! Cause me to meet 
whatever is good (i. e., for my advantage) and to give a wide berth ti> 



'Am. Naturalist. Feb. 1884, p. 126; Ibid., July, 1885. p. 670. 
■■^Ibid., Feb. 1884, pp. 115, 116, 117, 120, 123, 125. 

^ A similar rule about fasting obtained among the Kausa when mourning for the dead. See Amer. 
Naturalist, July. 1885. pp. 670, 672, 679. 



378 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

anythiDg* that may be to my injury or disadvantage. Throughout this 
island (the world) you regulate everytbingthat moves, including human 
beings, when you decide for one that his last day on earth has come, 
it is so. It can not be delayed. Therefore, O Mysterious Power, I ask 
a favor of you." 

THE POXKA SIN DANCE OF 1873. 

In the summer of 1873, when the author was missionary to the Ponka 
in what was Todd County, Dakota, that tribe had a sun dance on 
the prairie near the mission house. The scarifications and subsequent 
tortures and dancing lasted but three hours instead of a longer period, 
owing to the remonstrances of Bishop Hare, the agent, and the mis- 
sionary. The head chief. White Eagle, was tied to his pony, after he 
had been scarified and fastened to the sun pole. Some of his i^olice- 
men, armed with whips, lashed the pony until it leaped aside, tearing 
out the lariat that fiistened the chief to the sun pole, and terminating 
his participation in the ceremony. (See PI. xlvi and § 187.) For obvi- 
ous reasons the author did not view the sun dance, but he was told 
about it by some of the spectators. As the chief, Standing Bufltalo, 
hiid said to Bishop Hare in the council previous to the sun dance, '^ You 
Avhite people pray to Wakanda in your way, and we Indians pray to 
Wakanda in the sun dance. Should you chance to lose your way on the 
prairie you would perish, but if we got lost we would pray to Wa- 
kanda in the sun dance, and find our way again." 

THE MOON A WAKANDA. 

§ 30. No examples of invocations of the moon have yet been found 
among the Omaha and Ponka. But that the moon is "qube" appears 
from the decorations of robes and tents. (See §§ 45-47.) 

The moon is addressed as a "grandfather" and is described as the 
'• Wakan;a of night" in "Osage Traditions," lines o5-59.i 

HEKDACHES. 

The Omaha believe that the unfortunate beings, called "Mi"-qu-ga," 
are mysterious or sacred because they have been affected by the Moon 
Being. When a young Omaha fasted for the first time on reaching 
puberty, it was thought tluit the Moon Being appeared to him, holding 
in one hand a bow and arrows and in the other a pack strap, such as 
the Indian women use. When the youth tried to grasp the bow and 
arrows the Moon Being crossed his hands very quickly, and if the 
yourli was not very careful he seized the pack straj) instead of the 
bow and arrows, thereby fixing his lot in after life. In such a case he 
could not help acting the woman, speaking, dressing, and working just 
as Indian women used to do. Louis Sanssouci said that the mi"-quga 
took other men as their husbands. Frank La Fleche knew one such 



' See 6th Anu. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 385, 389. 



DORSEv.] MOON AND STARS AS WAKANDAS. 379 

man, wlio had had several meu as liis husbands. A Poiika chihl once 
said to the author, '•Mi"Jinga-ma nujiriga ania ^i-gaxe-nandi, mi"quga, 
ai," i. e., "If boys make a practice of phiying with the girls they be- 
come (or are called) mi"(juga." This term may be rendered "hermaph- 
rodite" when it refers to animals, as --^e DJi"(piga,'' a hermaphrodite 
buffalo. It must have been of this class of persons, called "Mi"-qu- 
ge" by the Kansa that Say wrote when he said: 

Many of the subjects of it (i. e., sodomy amoug the Kausa) are publicly known, 
and do not apjiear to be despised or to excite disgust. One was pointed out to us. 
He had submitted himself to it in consequence of a vow he had made to his mystic 
medicine, which obliged him to change his dress for that of a woman, to do their 
Avork, and to ])ermit his hair to grow.' 

After giving an account of the Mi"quga which agrees with what 
has been written above, Miss Fletcher^ tells of "a man who had the 
misfortune to be forced to this life and tried to resist. His father gave 
him a bow and some arrows, but the penalty of his vision so wrought 
upon his mind that, unable to endure the abnormal life, he committed 
suicide.'' (See §§212, 353.) 

STARS AS WAKANDAS. 

§31. That the Omaha and Ponka regarded the stars as Wakandas 
seems probable from the existence of nikie names and the perscmal 
mystery decorations. (See §§ 45, 47, and 52.) There are star names in 
the Night gens of the Kansa, and they point to the mythical origin ot 
the gens. The Kansa made offerings to the morning star. Among the 
Osage the traditions of the Tsiou Wacta^ie and Bald Eagle people men- 
tion several Wakandas among the stars. These are as follows: Watse 
cjuj^a, a "grandtather;" Watse mi"j[a, a "grandmother;" Mi"kak'e 
pefii"da, the Seven Stars (Pleiades?), a "grandfather;" the constella- 
tion Ta fadfi" or the Three Deer, a "grandfather;" the morning star, 
Mi"kak'e taijj[a (literally, large star), a "grandfather;" the small star, 
a "grandfather;" the bowl of the Dipper, called "Wadaha (/'ifikce; 
the Funeral Bier," a "grandfather," and the Female Red Bird, a 
"grandmother," the eponym of the Tsiou ^yacta^[e or "Bed Eagle" 
gens. She, too, was probably a star.-' 

§32 Ga" edada" fi"' ctewa" (|'aha"'-na"i ui'aci"'ga anuV, dahe' :^anga' fi", 

And what tlie soever usually Indian the hill large the 

col. prayed (to) jil. col. 

ob. " sub. ob. 

ctewa"'. " Wakan'da bf u'gaqti wi'i^ai a," e'-na"i. " Hau, xan'de ninke' 

soever Wakaiida all I ask a ! they said Ho Ground you who 

favor of usually 

you (pi.) 

ce, 5{a'ci jin'ga e'ga" a'wita" te' a," ai' ni'kaci"'ga ama'. xade' ui'fe 

sit some little so I tread will I say Indians the Wheiieetlie wiiid 

time on you pi. sub. is seuthither ( ?) 



' James' Account Long's Exped., Phil., vol. i, 1823, p. 129. 

*Rei)t. Peabody Museum, Vol. in. p. 281, note. 

^See -Osage Traditions.' pp. 384-395, in 6th Ann. Kept. P.ur. Ethn. 



380 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

(lu'balui te' cti (/'aha'"-iia"i. "xade' ui'fe du'baha nauka'ce, 

in tour the too they usually Whence the wind in four ye who are 

l)lace8 ]jray (to)' is sent hither ( .') places 

i"win'5[a"i-8a.-' Ga"' gage'gifa"'! ni'aci"'ga uke'fi" ama', Wakan'da 

help ye me anil theyspeakinthat Indian ordinary the pi. "Wakanda 

maimer to (one) sub. 

wa'('aha"i te'di. '' The Indians used to invoke various objects, includ- 

they pray to when 
them 

ing- the mountains, saying, 'O, all ye mysterious powers, I ask a favor 
of you!' They prayed to the ground, saying, 'O, you who are the 
ground! May I tread you a little while longer!' i. e., ' May my life on 
earth be prolonged!' When one prayed to the four winds, he would 
say, 'Ho, ye four winds, help me!' Thus did speak when they prayed 
to the Wakaudas."— (George Miller.) 

THE WINDS AS WAKANDAS. 

§ 33. The Omaka and Ponka invoked the winds, as has been stated in 
part of the preceding section. See also the statement of Samuel Fre- 
mont (§-7).' 

In preparing for the pipe dance the tobacco pouch, two gourd rattles, 
and the ear of corn have a figure drawn on each of them with green 
paint; it is the cross, indicating the four quarters of the heavens or the 
four winds.'^ 

KAN.S.\ SACRIFICE TO THE WINDS. 

" In former days the Kansa used to remove the hearts of slain foes 
and put them in the fire as a sacrifice to the four winds. Even now 
(1882) offerings are made to every Wakanda by the Kansa, to the power 
or powers above, to those under the hills, to the winds, the thunder- 
being, the morning star, etc. As Ali"kawahu and Palia"legaqli are 
Yata men (i. e., members of gentes camping on the left side of the tribal 
circle), they elevate their left hands and begin at the left with the 
east wind, then they turn to the south wind, then to the west wind, 
and finally to the north wind, saying to each, ' Ga-tce, Wakan'da, 
mik'il' eyau',' i. e., ' O Wakanda, I really give that to you.' In former 
days they used to pierce themselves with knives and splinters of wood, 
and offer small pieces of their fiesh to the Wakaudas.'' ^ 

OSAGE CONSECRATIOX OF MYSTIC FIREPLACES. 

The author considers that the following statement of the Osage chief, 
5[ahij|e-wa4ayihj|a (of the Ttii.ni Wacta^je gens), refers to the invoca- 
tion of the four winds. It appears to have been associated with fire 
or hearth worship. Whenever a permanent village of earth lodges was 

'For an account of the offering of meat to the four winds, see Om. See, 3d Ann. Eept.. Bur. Ethn.. 
p. 284. 

^See Miss A. C. Fletcher on the " Wawan or Pipe Dance of the Omahas," Eept. Peabody Museum. 
Vol. Ill, p. 311, note 11, and the author's paper, Om. Soc, pp. 278, 279. 

3Paha"le-gaqli and Waqube-k"i" gave this information in the winter of 1882-'83. Compare the self- 
inflicted tortures of the Dakota and Ponka in the sun dance (§§ 29. 181-3, 185, 187). 



DORSEv.j WINDS AND THUNDER BEING AS WAKANDAS. 381 

established among the Osaf^e auil Kausd, there was a eoihsecratioii of 
a certain number of fireplaces before the ordinary tirejilac'es conkl be 
made by the common people. The consecrated fireplaces were made in 
two parallel rows, beginning- at the west and ending at the east. 
Among the Kansa there were seven on one side and six on the other 
but among the Osage there seem to have been seven on each side. 
Amongthe Osage, the Tsiou Wacta^jeand Pa^qkagenteswerethe ' road 
makers,' i. e., those who consecrated the two rows of fireplaces. Ajalii- 
5te wajayinjia said, "When the old Tsiauman made his speech, he went 
into details al)out every part of a lodge, the fireplace, building mate- 
rials, implements, etc. Four sticks were placed in the fireplace, the first 
one pointing to the west (see §§ 40, 84). When the first stick was laid 
down, the Tsiou leader spoke about the west wind, and also about a 
young buffalo ball (Tse^u-oih^pi), repeating the name, Wanie-ska (mean- 
ing not gained). When the stick pointing to the north was laid down 
he spoke of Tsehe-qu^se (gray buffalo horns), or a buttah)bull. When 
the stick at the east was laid down, he si)oke of Tse-}ujia-tari^a(alarge 
buffalo bull). On laying down the fourth stick, pointing to the south, 
iie spoke of Tse mi"5ia (a buffalo cow). At the same time a similar 
ceremony was performed by the aged Pa-'qka man for the geuteson the 
right side of the tribal circle. In placing the stick to the east, he men- 
tioned Ta:^se 3;aqpa tse (the east wind) and Tahe cade (dark horned 
deer). In placing that to the north, Ta48e jasa" tse (the north wind, lit- 
erally, ' the pine wind ') and Tahe qu:^se (the deei- with gray horns) 
were m'fentioned. In placing that ])oin ting to the Avest, Ta;se Ma"ha 
tse (the west wind) and an animal which makes a lodge and is with 
the Tahe pasijie (probably a deer name) were mentioned. In placing 
the stick pointing to the south, he spoke of Tajs-e Ak'a tse (the south 
wind) and Ta wanka he ajjfa.)i skutan^ja (probable meaning, a large 
white female deer without any horns). 

§34. In time of war, prayers were made about the fire (§287), when a 
warrior painted his face red, using the "tire paint," a custom of the left 
or Tsi.ou side of the tribe. Those on the right or Han :51a side used "the 
young buffalo bull decoration," and probably offered prayer in connec- 
tion therewith, in order to be filled with the spirit of their "little grand- 
father" (the young buffalo bull), as they rushed on the enemy. This 
will l)e seen from the words employed by the Avarrior: "My little grand- 
father is alwaj's dangerous as he makes an attempt. Very close do I 
stand, ready to go to the attack !"' 

THE THUNDER-BEING A WAKANDA. 

Omaha axd Poxka iN\'(t('ATio.\ of thk TurxDi-.K-iiiciNG. 

§35. Anu)ug the Omaha and Ponka, when the first thunder was heard 
in the spring of the year, the Black bear people went to the sacred 

'Account of the war customs of the Osages: in Amor. Naturalist, Vol. xviii, No. 2, February, 1884,. 
p. 133. 



382 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

tent of the Elk gens, and there they assisted tlie Elk people in the in- 
vocation of the Thunder-being. At a similar gathering- of the Ponka, 
the Ponka Black bear people said, ''Han,i"c'age, ^i^ucpa ^efn aii'ga- 
ta'^ ganaxiwa^a^ai. Ma"cia(^a}ui ma"f in'ga," i. e., "Ho, venerable mar ! 
by yonr striking (with your club) you are frightening us, your grand- 
children, who are here. Depart on high."' 

THUNDKR-BEING INVOKED HY WARRIORS. 

The Thunder-being is invoked by all present during the feast pre- 
paratory to starting on the warpath, when there is a small party of 
warriors. Each one addresses the Thunder-being as " Nuda^haiiga," 
leader in war, or war captain.^ 

When a large war party is desired, the Thunder-being is invoked 
(See history of Wabaskaha, in Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. vi, p. 394). 
Wabaskaha himself prayed, sa-yiug, ''Oh, Wakanda, though foreigners 
have injured me, I hope that you may help me." All who heard him 
knew that he desired to lead a large war party. When the four cap- 
tains were chosen, they had to cry incessantly at night as well as by 
day, saying, "Oh, Wakanda! pity me! help me in that about which I 
am in a bad humor." During the day they abstained from food and 
drink; but they could satisfy their thirst and hunger when night 
came. 

At the feast preparatory to starting off as a large war party, the 
keepers of the sacred bags sing thunder songs as well as other sacred 
songs. One of the thunder songs used on such an occasion begins 
thus : 

" Wi-^i-ga" na"'-pe-wa-f e «?-ga°, 

Wi-:^i-ga" na'^'-pe-wa-^-e e-ga°, 

We-ti" ke gfi-ha°'-ha^ :b|], 

Na"'-pe-wd-fe ." 

" As my grandfather is dangerous, 

As my grandfather is dangerous. 

Dangerous when he brandishes his club, 

Dangerous ." 

When he had proceeded thus far, jafi"-na"paji stopped and refused 
to tell the rest, as it was very " waqube." He said that the principal 
captains of a large war party tied pieces of twisted grass around their 
wrists and ankles, and wore similar pieces around their heads. But 
Two Crows, who has been a captain, says that he never did this. (See^ 
however, the Iowa custom in § 75.) 

'See Omaha Sociology, §24, 3d. Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn., p. 227. 
2 Omaha Sociology, in 3d. Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn., p. 316. 



DORSEY.J INVOCATION OF THUNDER BEINGS. 383 



ICTASAXDA CUSTOM. 

The following "nikie"' or ancient custom of the Ictasanda .uons was 
related by George 31iller: 

Xaji"' da"'ctea"' -^i, na^'pai i[i, ga"' Wakau'da-nia niiii' uji' wa'i'i 

Kiiin perhaps it' they fear if so tlie Wakaudas (pi. ub.) (o- put in they 

seen' <laii<:er liaeco gave to 

them 

te, Ga"' nini' uji' Ava'i'i te'di e'gifa'"i te: (/'efu waqpa'fi"- 

the (past and tobacco put in thev gave wlien they said to the Kere very 

act) to'th<-iii (one) (past act) 

<iti a'f'i^he', a"wa"'wa;a'(j'ica" ete'ctewa" finde ti'gfe gdxai-ga, 

poor I who move in what direction soever to become abandoned make ye 

(suddenly) 

!jiga"'lia. E'dedi' fa'<}-i"ce (e) Ja"nii'". ^'igfize-ma^'fi", e'dedi 

O grandfather. Tou are mv. there I suspect. Walking Forked-lightning, you are 

fa(|;i"ce {6) ja"mi"'. ^ia"'ba-ti'g<|'e, e'dedi fa'fi"ce (e) ja"mi"'. 

mv. there I suspect. Slieet-lightning flashes you are mv. there I suspect. 

suddenly 

^'ia'"ba-gi-ua", e'dedi' fa^'V'cv (e) ja"mi"". Gaagigfeda" 

slieet-lightning is often you are mv. there I susj)cct (a name referring 

returning hither, to passing tliunderj 

e'dedi ((•<i(|'i°c6 (e) ja"nii"'. Ga"' gat^ga" gaxa-baji ^ii'cte niaci"'ga 

you are mv. there I suspect. And in that manner he does not if man 

ci"<|'iqade fega" uaji^'i, niaqpi' ke^atj-ica" xage naji"'i. Ga"' 

(See Note.) thus stands. cloud toward the Ig <ib. crying stands. And 

Wakaii'da aina wegidaha"'-bi, ai. ]Srikaci'"ga ta°'wa"gfa" 

Wakauda the jd. sub. tliat they know about tliey say. Person gens 

them, their own 

wedaji ama afi"' ua"'pai, ij^je ge' ctewa". 

elsewhere the j)l. sub. to have it they fear seen danger, name thepl. in. ob. even. 

Agndi'cte nikaci'"ga am4 i^-a'e'fe ama Icta'sanda 

In some places person tlie pi. sub. those who have visions, etc. Ictasanda 

(not specified.) 

ucka" e4ai' te e'ga" ga'xai. Waa'" e'qti ga'xai da"'cte 

custom their the ob. so they do. song they themselves they make iicrhajis 

gia"' uaji"'i. Ivini'ba ke uji' afi"'i e'ga" maqpi' 

singing their own they stand. Pipe the Ig. ob. tilled they liave as cloud 

ke:^a4'ica" ugaqfe baha' uaji"'i. ifi'kaci"'ga ama' a'Ji cti 

towards the Ig. oh. facing holdingontto they stand. Person the i)l. sub. difl'ereut too 

ga'xe-iia"'i. Ata"'cte nini'ba afi"'-bajT ga"' waa"' si'a"fe' da"'cte 

they often do. Sometimes pipe they do not have so singing alone perhap^ 

iiaji"'-na"i. Kl ni'kaci°'ga ama' f.e' i'(|;a'e'fe ama' ilcka" eda'da" 

they stand often. And person the pi. sub. this those who have deed what 

visions, etc. 

uda" uha' 'i'(/'e tai' 5[i'cte i'baha"'i, ci licka" .inaji 

good to follow the course promise will even they know, again deed unsuitable 

a'kipa tai' :>[i'cte i'baha"'i. Ga" ni'kaci"'ga fi" a"wa"'wa:4a 

they will meet even they know. And person the in what direction 

mv. one 

ga(if,a"' ma"(fd"' ctewa"' iiiiii' uji' 'i'i e'ga" wafi'gfariki(|'ai'. 

large liunting walks tioever tobacco pvits in gives to as causes him to jjrophesy. 

expedition him 

E'a"' ujaii'ge uha' tai 5[i'cte i'baha" gi'ga"fai' e'ga" waan'kiifai'. 

How road he will follow its even t-o know wishes for him as causes him to sing, 

(ourse 

Ki ata"'cte iii'kaci"'ga ama' e'ga"i, a'fade-na"'i, wani'ta da"'cte 

And sometimes person the pi. sub. Just so, they often pronounce, (|uadruped perhaps 

ube'sui" ^\, wani'ta d'u'ba a"'i'i ha, e' da"'ctea"'i. 

they And if quadruped some they have he j>erhaps. 

out given to me says 



384 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

Xotes. 

383, 4, et passim. ^'a^i"ce eja"ini", coutracted in rapid prounnciation to, ^a(l;i"ceja"mi". 
383,4-6. (/.'ig^*ize-ma"^i", Cia"ba-tig-^e, (j ia"ba-gina", and Gaagigf/ieda" are '-uikie 

names" of the Ictasanda or Thunder gens of the Omaha. They may refer to 

four Thunder heings, one at each point of the compass, or one dwelling in the 

direction of each of the four winds. 
383,8. Ci"^iqade, with the arms elevated and the hands stretched out, palms 

down, towards the clouds. 
383. !t-10. Nikaci"ga wedajT ama, etc. Other gentes of Omaha fear to mention 

these Ictasanda names, or to bestow them on members of their gentes. 
383,11. Agudictt . . i<^a'ece ama, etc. Refers to the lrig(|a" i^a'e^e ama, or 

the Thunder shamans, of the other Omaha gentes. 

Tra7islatio)i. 

When the Ictasanda people become fearful during a shower, they 
till a pipe with tobacco and offer it to the Thunder-beings. And when 
they offer the tobacco, they speak thus: "O grandfather! I am very 
poor here. In some direction or other cause a place to be abandoned 
by those (who would injure me?). I think that you are there () 
(pig(|-ize-iua"f i" ! I think that you are there. O ^'ia"ba-tigfe ! I think 
that you are there. O (|'ia"ba-gi na"! 1 think that you are there. O 
Gaagigfeda" ! I think that you are there." 

And when they do not offer the tobacco, they stand with the arms 
elevated and the hands stretched out, palms down, as they cry towards 
the clouds. And they say that the Thunder-beings know about them, 
their worshippers. 

The Omaha of the other gentes fear to mention these Ictasanda 
nikie names, or to bestow them on members of their gentes, as 
well as to invoke the Thunder-being or beings, unless they belong to 
the order of Thunder shamans. In that case, they can do as the Icta- 
sanda i)eople do. They make songs about the Thunder beings, and 
stand singing their own songs. They till the pipe with tobacco, and 
stand, holding it with the mouth-piece toward the clouds, as they gaze 
towards them. 

These shamans often act otherwi.se. Sometimes they do not till the 
pipe, and then they si\and singing the Thunder songs, without offering 
anything to the Thunder-beings. 

And these shamans know when anything promises to result in good 
or evil to the jierson undertaking it. So when a person wishes to join 
a large'hnntiug party, he fills a pipe with tobacco, and otiers it to a 
shaman, thus causing him to i)rophesy. As he wishes him to know 
the result of following a certain course, (i. e., of traveling in a certain 
direction), he induces the shaman to sing (sacred songs). And some- 
times the shaman predicts the very occurrence which comes to i)ass; 
if, for instance, he foretells that the inquiring man will kill game, he 
may say, ' The Thunder-beings ( ?) have given me some (]uadrupeds.' " 



DOESEYl KANSA WORSHIP OF THE THUNDEE-BEING. 385 

KAXSA WORSHIP OF THE THrNTiER-BEIXr,. 

§ 36. The following was a custom of the Lu or Thuuder-being geus. 
At the time of tlie first thunder-storm in the spring of the year, the 
Lu people put a quantity of green cedar on a fire, making a great 
smoke. The storm ceased after the members of the other gentes 
offered prayers. The Buffalo or Tcedunga gens aided the Lu gens in 
the worship of the Thunder being, by sending one of their men to 
open the sacred bag of gray hawk skin and remove the mystery pipe. 
These objects were kept by a Lu man. Kinuyinge. who was not 
allowed to open the bag. 

Paha'^le-gaqli, of the Large Hanga gens, and Ali°kawahu, of the 
Small Haiiga, are the leaders in everything pertaining to war. Pa- 
ha"le-gaqli furnished the author with a copy of his war chart, on 
which are represented symbols of the mystery songs. In the middle 
of the chart there should be a representation of fire, but Paha4e- 
gaqli said that he was afraid to draw it there, unless he fasted and 
took other necessary precautions. The songs used in connection with 
the chart are very '* wakandagi,'' or mysterious. They are never 
sung on common occasions, or in a profane manner, lest the offender 
should be killed by the Thunder-being. One of the three songs about 
the sacred pipe, sung when the wrappings are taken from the pipe 
(See §85) by Ali°kawahu is as follows: 

"Ha-ha! tCe-ga-nu ha-ha ! 
Ha-ha I tce-ga-nu ha-ha ! 
Ha-ha I tce-ga-nu ha-ha ! 
Hii-hii' ! " 

(Unintelligible to the author. Said when Ali°Vawahu presses 
down on the covers or wrajipiugs of the pipe.) 

'' Yu ! yu : yu ! Hii-hii' ! Hii-hii' ! " 

(Chorus sung by all the Large and Small Hanga men.) 

This last line is an invocation of the Thunder-being. The arms, 
which are kept apart and i)arallel. are held up toward the sky, with 
the palms of the hands out. Each arm is then rubbed from the wrist 
to the shoulder by the other hand.' 

After the singing of these three songs, Paha°le-gaqli carries the 
sacred clam shell on his back. 

The second figure on the chart is that of the venerable man or 
Wakanda, who was the first singer of all the Haiiga songs. When Ali°- 
kawahu and Paha°1e-ga(ili are singing them, they think that this 
Wakanda walks behind them, holding ui) his hands toward the Thun- 
der-being, to whom he prays for them. 



•This song and the invocation of the Thunder-being are used by the Ponka as well as by the 
Kaosa. According to Miss Fletcher, the " sign of giving thanks " among the Hunkpapa Dakota is 
made by moving the hands in the opposite direction, i. e., " from the shoulder to the wrist." See 
" The White Buffalo Festival of the Uacpapas," in Peabody Museum Kept., vol. in, p. 268. 
11 ETH 1*5 



386 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

When the war pipe is .smoked by any Hauga man, he holds the pipe 
in his right hand, and blows the smoke into the sacred clam shell, in his 
left. The smoke ascends from the clam shell to the Tlumder-beiug-, to 
whom it is pleasant. 

The Kansa used to "cry to" the Thimder-being before going on the 
warpath. When the captain (the head of the Large Hanga gens) 
smoked his pipe, he used to say, Haii, Wakauda-e, Payi"-maha" mi"' 

Ho? O Wakanda! Skidi one 

ts'e kn°'bla cyan," i. e. "Ho, Wakanda! I really wish a Skidi" (or, 

to die I wish indeed 

Pawnee Loup) " to die!" 

Themenoftlie two Haiiga gentes unite in singing songs to stop 
rain, when fair weather is needed, and songs to cause rain when there 
has been a drought. (See § 43.) 

SUBTERRANEAN AND SUEAQUATIC WAKANDAS. 

§ 37. The Omaha and Ponka believe in the Wakandagi, monsters that 
dwell beneath the bluffs and in the Missouri river. These monsters 
have very long bodies, with horns on their heads. One myth relates 
how an orphan killed a Wakandagi with seven heads.' 

The Omaha have ;i tradition that a Wakandagi was seen in the lake 
into which Blackbird creek empties, near the Omaha agency. It is 
impossible to say whether the Wakandagi and the j^ande or Ground 
were differentiated (See § 27). The Kansa Mi-a-lu-cka were somewhat 
like the Wakandagi, though in one respect they resembled tlie myth- 
ical ja-snu-ta of the Omaha, i. e., in having enormous heads. The 
Kansa speak of the Mialucka as a race of dreadful beings with large 
heads and long hair.^ They dwelt in remote places, to which they were 
supposed to entice any unwary Indian who traveled alone. The victim 
became crazy and subsequently lived as a mi"quga or catamite. Some 
of the Mialucka dwelt underground or in the water, sitting close to 
the bank of the stream. The ancient Mialucka was a benefactor to 
the Indians, for he took some wet clay and made first a buffalo calf and 
then three buffalo bulls, which he ordered the In<lians to shoot, after 
teaching them how to make bows and arrows and to use them. 

THE 1NDA(^INGA. 

§ 38. The Ponka, in 1871, told the author of a being whom they called 
the Indaf'iiiga. This being was a superhuman character, who dwelt in 
the forests. He hooted like an owl, and he was so powerful that he 
could uproot a tree or overturn a lodge. The Ponka had a song about 
hiu), and mothers used to scare their children by saying, "Behave, 
else the Tndafifiga will catch you!" Joseph La Fleche had heard it 
spoken t)f as a monster in human shape, covered with thick hair. As 

' Contr. N. A. Etlin., vol. vi, pp. 108-131. 

^Compare tlie hair of the Thunder-men, in Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. vi, pp. 187, 188. 



PORSEY] OTHER KANSA WAKANDAS. 387 

the Ponka for wearing a mask is "ludafinga gaxe," or "to act the 
Iiidafinga," it may be that this character was an aboriginal bogy. 
Com])are the Dakota Oaijotidaij, llohnogica, Uijgnagicala, etc. (§ 232.) 
Omaha mothers nsed to scare their chihb-eu by telling them that if 
they did not behave, Icibaji (a hero of the j^e-sinde gens) or j^exuja" 
(a hero of the Aja"ze gens) wonld catch them.' Another fearful being 
was Inde-na"bii, or Two Faces, the very sight of whom killed a woman 
who was enceinte.^ This being resembled, in some respects, Ictinike, 
the deceiver,^ though I(;tiuike was usually the counterpart of the Dakota 
Ikto, Iktomi, or Uijktomi. (See §§ 228-231.) As a worker of evil 
Ictinike may be compared with the Dakota Auuijg-ite or Two Faces 
and the latter in turn resembled the Inda^iiiga of the Pouka. (See 
§§ 233, 234.) 

OTHER KANSA WAKANDAS. 

§ 39. The third figure on the Kansa war chart is^ thatof the Wakan- 
da or aged man who gives success to the hunter. lie is thus addressed 
by Ali"kawahu and Paha°le-gaqli: Ts'age-jiu'ga haii! Dable ma"'yi»- 

Venerable mau Ho ! To hunt walk 
large quad- 
rupcils 

an! Dada" wadjii'ta nikaci^ga ckeda° wayakipa bada" ts'eya-bana- 

thou What quadruped person soever you meet theiu aud kill ye 

(Id.) 

hau ! i. e., "Venerable man, go hunting ! Kill whatever persons or quad- 

! 

rupeds meet you!" They think that this being drives the game 
towards the hunter. 

In the war chart there are seven songs of the Wakauda who makes 
night songs. Fig. 16 of that chart refers to a song of another Wa- 
kanda who is not described. Fig. 18 refers to two shade songs. 
Shade is made by a AVakauda. Fig. 19 is a dream song. There is a 
Wakanda who makes people sleepy, an Indian Somnus. 

§ 40. OMAHA INVOCATIONS OF THE TRAP, ETC. 
J^be da"'ct6 iiji ^ii, maka"^' igaxe ma"ii°'i j[i, e nini bahA 

Beaver for in- he if, medicine making he walks if, that tobac- show 
stance traps for that co ing 

it purposti 

e!j4 t6 e. (The invisible being who first made the medicine was 

his the it. 

thus addressed:) Nikaci"ga pahafi'ga maka"' icpaha" ninke'c6, 

Person first medicine you knew you who 

(.sit), 

dejehide cka"ze niiik6'c6, nini gake/ ! ^ef u edMa" cka"ze ge 

medicine you you who tobacco that Uere what you taught the 

taught (sit), Ig. ob. pi. 

in. oh. 

' Contr. N. A. Ethn, vol. vi, p. 390. See al.so ^ 19. nbid., p. 207. Ubid., pp. 40, KU, etc. 
« Am. Naturalist, July, 1885, vol. 19, PI. XX, p. 676. 



388 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



I do not kno^- at all 

iwamakiuKf't' te Ti. 

I get it easily by will 1 
means of 

prays to the beaver: 



vet 



what 



i^apalia"-inaji'-qti wi'" ai(l'aga(|-afi"lie fa^'Ja, ca"' edada" cteete 

one I am carryinj: ou though, 

my arm and in my 
hand as I move 

Nini gake', ai 

Tobacco that, says 

Ig. ob., 

Hau, Jabe! Niui 

Ho. Beaver! Tobacco 



iiiaci"ga 


aiua. 


(He then 


person 


the niv 
sub. 




gake' ! 


IJbahi 


e'a"' ckaxai 


that ! 


Feeding 


how yon made 


Ig. ob. 


place 


them 



r.-i I 



ge bifiigaqti ugigfaca^'i-ga 

the all travel ye in your 

pi. own! 

in ob. 

Hau, jejehide, uiui gake'! 

Ho, Medicine, tobacco that! 
Ig. ob. 

tate, efega" uajifi'-ga. 

shall, thinking it stand thou. 



e^ega° najin'-ga. 

thinking it stand thou. 



Xiui gake'! (Xext, to'the medidiie:) 

Tobacco that! 
Ig. ob. 

'A"'qti cteete wauita wi" iihe ea'"(fe 

Xo matter how it quadruped one pass me on the 

is (or At any road (to the 

rate) trap) 

A'"qti cteete daq^uge a"'f a"ska tate, 

At any rate nostrils large enough shall, 

for me (i. e.. to 
smell me.) 

(Invocatiou of the trap:) 



Ma"'ze 

Iron 

miuke, 

I who, 

We'i" 

Pack- 
strap 



uahkace ! 

ye who (sit) ! 



Niiii gake' ! 

Tobacco that ! 
ig. ob. 

niui gake' ! 

tobacco that! 
ig. ob. 

(Invocation of the pack-strap:) 



Haii, 

Ho, 



'A"'qti cteete wi"' wat'eafe t4 

At auv rate one I kill it will 



e<fega° gi^-i'^'i-ga 

thinking it sit ye. 

nifike'ce ! uiui gake' ! 

you who (sit) ! tobacco 



'A"'qti cteete wi wauita 

At any rate I quadruped 



Hau, 

Ho. 

ahigi 

mauv 



gake' ! 

that! 
U. ob. 



that ! 
ig. ob. 

weat'e, e(fegaii-ga. Hau, x^*^'^® ionuga;a fata"ce! uini 

I touch think thou. Ho. Entrance at the right you who tobacco 

them, side stand ! 

<A°'qti cteete wi wauita a"fa"'bakiu'de an;'iji" ta miuke, e(fegau-ga. 

At any rate I iiuadruped brushing by me I stand will I who think thou. 

(Sit). 

Hail, x^-^i^'^*^ ugacke f ata°ce ! uini gake' ! 'A"'qti cteete wi 

Ho, Buflalo-tail tied to it you who tobacco that! At any rate I 

stand! Ig. ob. 

wanita a";ap'e an4)i° ta miuke, e(fegaii-ga. Haii, Unefe niiike'ce! 

quadruped near to me I stand will I who think thou. Ho, Fireplace you who 

(siti, 

'A^'qti cteete wi wanita 



niui gake' ! 

tobacco that ! 
Iff. ob. 



At anv rate 



e(f^gan-ga. 

think thou. 



I quadruped 



Notes. 



a"'naai 

drops over 

on me (from 

the kettle) 



(sit) ! 

agfi"' ta miuke, 

I sit will I who 
(sit). 



Tokl by George Miller. In the last invocation, he began to dictate 
thus: "Hau, Xawi"xe duba akipasau'de uaukace!" i.e., '-Ho, ye 

Ho. Firebrand four meet at a com- ye who 

mon jioint 

four tirebrauds that meet at a common point (i. e., in the middle of the 



DORSEY.I OMAHA INVOCATIONS OF THE TRAP, ETC. 389 

fireplace) I" He sub.sequeutly cliaiiged it to an iuvocationof tlie lire- 
place itself. But it is very pr()l)able that there was an invocation of 
the four firebrands, reseniblino- the ceremonies of the Kansa and 
Osage (see § 33). G-eorge has given all that he remembers of the invo- 
cations, but he does not recollect the exact order. 

387,M. deje-hide, "lower part," or "roots of grass," an archaic name for ■•uiaka"", 
medicin*'. Nini gakt- — the classiher kt^ shows that a loni!: oltject, the pipe, is 
referred to, the tobacco being in the pipe when it is ottered to the powers. 

388.1. ai^';agata,-i"he, contr. from iii^-agacjia ii(^i"he, used here in the sense of 
*'ab(^i"," I have. 

388,12. an^'a"bakmde. eq. to a»(;-a"bista ^ewa<fee, to send them (through) when they 
are so close that they touch me. 

Translation. 

The invisible bein.u' who first made the beaver medicine and taught its 
use to mankind, was thus addressed: ''Oh, Thou who didst teach how 
to make the medicine, here is tobacco! Though I have your medicine, 
the nature of which I do not understand at all, grant that I may easily 
acquire something or other by means of it I Here is tobacco 1" 

When he addressed the beavers, he said. Ho, ye Beavers I Here is 
tobacco I Let all of you travel in your feeding places which you have 
made. Here is tobacco !" To the beaver medicine itself, he said, '• Ho, 
Medicine I Here is tobacco! Stand thinking thus, 'At any rate 
an animal sliall surely pass me and be caught in the trap, and its nos- 
trils shall be large enough to smell me.''" The trap itself was thus ad- 
dressed: -'Ho, ye pieces of iron! Here is tobacco! Sit ye and think 
thus: 'At any rate I will kill one !'" To the pack-strap was said. --Ho, 
pack-strap! Here is tobacco! Think thou. 'At any rate I shall press 
against many quadrupeds.'" The right side of the entrance to the tent 
(?)was thus addressed: '• Ho, Thou who standest at the right side 
of the entrance to the tent! (§ 2'32) Here is tobacco! Think thou. 'At 
any rate I shall continue to have some one bring dead animals on his 
back and send through me suddenly, rubbing again.st me as they iiass 
through."" To the principal tent pole these words were said. "Ho, 
Thou wlio standest with tlie buffalo tail tied to thee! Here is tobacco! 
Think thou, 'At any rate, I shall have a quadruped to come near me.*"' 
When the man invoked the fireplace, he said, "Ho, Fire[>lace! Here 
is tobacco! Think tlnm. "At any rate I shall sit and have the water 
fall on me in drops as it boils over from the kettle containing tlie quad- 
ruped.'" 

These invocations may be compared with what the ])roi)het Habakkuk 
tells us about the Chaldeans, in the first chapter of his prophecy. In 
his prayer to God, he says, "These, plunderers pull out all men with the 
hook, draw them in with their casting net, and gather them with their 
draw net, and rejoice and are glad in it. Therefore they make offer- 
ings to their casting net, and burn incense to their draw net, for through 
them their catch is rich and their food daintv." ' 



• Geikie's paraphrase, in " Hours with the Bible," vol. V, p. 357. 



390 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

FASTING. 

§ -41. This topic naturally precedes that of visions or dreams about 
mystery, animals, and objects. Two Crows and Joseph La Fleche heard 
the following- spoken of as an ancient custom. It was told them in their 
youth by some of the old men of that day, who had received it from 
their elders as having been practiced by the tribe for unnumbered gen- 
erations. When old men had sous, sisters' sons, or grandsons, who 
api)roached manhood, they used to direct those youths to abstain from 
food and drink, and to put clay on their faces, saying: "Qa°xa';a xage' 

Far away crying 

ma^ij-i^'i-gri. A"'ba (j-a'bfi" du'ba ja°' -^i, wafata-bajii-ga, ki ni 

walk ye. Day three four sleep if. do not eat (pi. ). and water 

^ata"'-bajii-ga. ^'iqu'bajT cte'ctewa", ca°' Wakan'da aka ufi'jja" 

do not drink (pi.) Yon are not even if, still Wakauda the sub. he will 
"qnhe" 

tA aka. Wa'if-awaqp^ui ma"oni°'i 5[i, waonaha^-de (faxaxage ^I, 

aid you. You act as if poor you walk if. you pray when yon cry if 

U(|-i'i[a'' ta' aka," i. e., "Walk ye in remote places, crying to Wakanda. 

he will aid you. 

Neither eat nor drink for three or four days. Even though you do not 
ac(iuire personal myterious power, Wakanda will aid you. If you act 
as poor men, and pray as you cry, he will lielp you."' 

When their throats became dry, their voices gave out. When they 
had completed their fasts, they went home, being exceedingly emacia- 
ted. At that time they could not swallow solid food, so they were 
obliged to subsist on mush mixed with much water, till by degrees they 
became able to eat what they pleased. Many thought that this fasting 
enabled them to have superhumau communications with W^akanda. 

Fasting was practiced at other times, but always in order to obtain 
sui^erhuman assistance or to acquire a transfer of superhuman power. 
A Ponka war cax)tain exhorted each of his followers thus: "Ahau! 
Wacka"' egan'-ga ! Qu'beki^a'-bi (|'i"he' !" i. e., "Oho! Do exert yourself ! 
Be sure to make yourself the possessor of su})Brhuman power by the aid 
of the animal that you have seen in your vision after fasting!" ^ Mem- 
bers of a small war i>arty had to fast four days, counting from the time 
that they started on the warpath. '^ Before the large war party was 
formed to avenge the wrongs of Wabaskaha, the four prospective cap- 
tains fasted.^ When the Kansa captain fasted, he could not visit his 
family, but a small fasting lodge was erected for him at some distance 
from his own house.'' 

MYSTIC TREES AND PLANTS. 

§ 42. The Omaha have two sacred trees, the ash and the cedar. The 
ash is connected with the beneficent natural jwwers. Part of the sacred 
pole of the Omaha and Ponka is made of ash, the other i)art being of 
Cottonwood. The stems of the niniba weawa", or "sacred pipes of 



' Contr. X. A. Ethn., vol. vi, pp. 370, 371. 

2 Om. Sociology, in 3d. Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethn., p. 317. 

3 Ibid. p. 319. 

* ■• Kansas Mourning and War Customs, " in Am. Naturalist, July 1885, p. 672. 



MOUSEY] MYSTIC TREES AND PLANTS. 391 

frieiidsliip," are inade of ash. But the cedar is linked with the destruc- 
tive agencies, thunder, lightning, wars.' 

When the seven old men took the pipes around the Omaha tribal circle, 
the bad ]\ra"(|-ifika-gaxe people wore plumes in their hair and wrapped 
branches of cedar around their heads, being awful to behold. So the 
old man passed them by and gave the pipe to the other Ma"f iuka gaxe, 
who were good. In the Osage traditions, cedar symbolizes the tree of 
life. When a woman is initiated into the secret society of the Osage, 
the oflBciating man of her gens gives her four sips of water, symbolizing, 
so they say, the river flowing by the ti-ee of life, and then he rubs her 
from head to foot with cedar needles three times in front, three times at 
her back, and three times on each side, twelve times in all, pronouncing 
a sacred name of Wakan;a as he makes each pass. Part of the Pa"iika 
gens of the Osage tribe' are Ked ( Vdar people. The Panka gens of the 
Kansa tribe is called " Qundjala"," i. e., ''wearers of cedar (branches) on 
the head." Cedar is used by the Santee Dakota in their ceremony of 
the four winds. (See § 128.) The Teton Dakota believe in the efficacy 
of the smell of cedar wood or of the smoke from cedar in scaring away 
ghosts. (See § 272.) In the Athapascan creation myth of Oregon, 
obtained by the author in 1884, the smoke of cedar took the ])lace of food 
for the two gods who nmde the world, and the red cedar is held sacred 
as well as the ash, because these two trees were the tirst to be discov- 
ered by the gods.^ 

That the Ilidatsa have a similar notion about the red cedar is shown 
by their name for it, "midalioita,"" mysterious or sacred tree. Compare 
what Matthews tell abont the Ilidatsa reverence for the Cottonwood 
with what is recoided above about the Omaha sacred pole.^ (§ 341.) 

The Cottonwood tree also seems to have been regarded as a mystic 
tree by the Omaha and Ponka, just as it is by the Hidatsa. The sacred 
pole of the two tribivs was made from a tall cotton wood.^' When the 
lower part of the sacred pole became worn away, about 8 feet remained, 
and to this was fastened a i)iece of ash wood about 18 inches long. In 
preparing for the dance called the Ilede watci, the Iilke-sabe people 
sought a Cottonwood tiee, which they rushed on, felled, and bore to the 
center of the tribal circle, where they planted it in the ''uje;!." Mys- 
tic names taken from the cottonwood are found in the ^'ixida and Nika- 
daona, the two war gentes of the Ponka tribe, and in the (/'atada and 
;\ja"ze gentes of the Omaha.'' 

That there were other mystic trees and plants, appears from an ex- 
amination of the personal names of the Omaha, Ponka, aiul cognate 
tribes. For instance, j^ackahig();a", a nikie name of the j,ada, or Deer 

Miss Fletcher, in Am. Assor. Adv. Sci., Proc, vol. xxxili, pt. 2, 1885, pp. 610, f.17. Francis La 
Fl^che, ibid., p. 614. 

-Osage Traditions, in 6tli Ann. Kept, of the Director Bur. Etlin.. 1888, ji. :)77. 

•'Am. Anthroi)oli>j;ist, viil. II., Xo. 1, 1888, y. .59. (■•January, 1889.") 

'U. S. Geol. and licoj,'r. Survi-y, Ha\ den : lliscel. Piilil.. ;No. 7, 1877; Matthews' Ethnoj;raphy and 
Philology of the Hidat.sa, 1877, p. 48. 

fOin. Soc, p. 234. ("ontr. X. A. Ethn., vol. vi, 4(18, line 3. 

•Om. Soc, p. 297. Contr. K. A. Ethn., vol. vi, 471, lines 3-5. 



392 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

gens of the Omaha, conveys some reference to a white oak tree, ^ackahi; 
and in the Xuqe, a Buffalo gens of the Ponka tribe, we find the name 
j^abehi. from a plant, bush, or tree found in Xebraska, the leaves of 
which, resembling those of red cherry trees, are used by the Omaha for 
making a tea. Further study may show that the Winnebago, who have 
the name Wazij^a, Pine Person, reverence a pine tree. (Query : May not 
this name be Cedar Person, rather than Pine Person?) 

Among the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, we find several cedar, corn, and 
pumpkin names. Several corn and pumpkin names occur in the name 
list of the Kansa tribe. Corn, elm, and black hawthorn names are 
found in the Osage name list, as well as cedar names; and their tradi- 
tions tell of the cedar, red oak, and sycamore, as well as of the corn and 
pumpkin. 1 (See § 49.) 

I^A'E^E. 

§ 43. This term has been defined in Chapter ii (§ S). It is very probable 
that fasting for several days tended to produce the condition of mind 
and body requisite for the supposed superhuman communications. 
According to ja^i"-na"paii and other Omaha, some persons thought 
that they saw or heard ghosts or various animals. Sometimes men 
were roused from sleep, imagining that they heard mysterious voices. 
Tliey claimed to have interviews witli U-ga-ha-na-da-ze. or the Ancient 
of Darkness; Ma-qpi, or the Ancient of Clouds; j^ande, or the Ground 
Being; Ihg^a", or the Thunder-being; the Sun, the Moon, the Morning 
Star, the Ancient of Eattlesnakes, the Ancient of Grizzly Bears, the 
Ancient of Black Bears, the Ancient of Buffaloes, the Ancient of Big 
Wolves, and the Ancient of Prairie Wolves. Each being or animal 
thus seen in a dream or vision seems to have been regarded as the 
special guardian spirit of the person claiming to have had interviews 
with liini. The Vag(ta^ ifa'ef ^ ma, or Those who had interviews with the 
Thunder-being, never danced at the meetings of their society. They 
invited one another to feast, and they sang as they remained seated. 
The songs referred to the Thunder-being. When they finished eating 
and singing the ceremonies ended. This order of Thunder shamans 
claimed the power to make rain (see § 36). 

According to jaf i"-na"paji and Little Village Maker, these shamans 
could also make circles of seven colors around the sun and moon, and 
the two men just named said that they had seen this done. Joseph 
La Fleche and Two Crows gave the following explanation: "When 
there are clouds that obscure the moon, a circle is seen around the 
moon, and it sometimes resembles a rainbow." Though Two Crows 
belongs to the Buffalo society (j^e ifa'efe-ma, or Order of Buffalo 
shamans — see § 89), he said that he had never had an interview with a 
mysterious buffalo, but that his work in the order was confined to the 
practice of surgery, he being the keeper of the "maka° ski^6," or sweet 

'Osage Traditiona, in 6th Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn.. pp. 377, 379, 390. 



poKSEY.j HfA*E(?fi. 393 

medicine. Jfotwithstanding this, there are certain buffalo songs, the 
property of the order, and \vhich they claim ta be powerful charms 
capable of working cures, when used by tlie surgeons of their order. 
Said Two Crows to the author, " If they had sent for the doctors ot our 
order we could have cured President Gartleld." The author obtained 
two of these Buffalo songs from an Omaha, but they are recorded only 
in singing notation.* 

Among the Omaha societies are the Gauge if a'ef e ma, the Horse 
shamans,- the Ca":^anga ifa-efe-ma, the Big Wolf shamans,^ and the 
Ma"tcu ifa'efe-ma, the Grizzly Bear shamans.^ 

According to Francis La Fleche.^ 

"There are three decrees of powers which come to men through visions: First, 
when the vision takes the form of an animal which addresses the man, he wDl then 
have acquired a jiower which will stead him in danger, and give him success in life. 
Second, if the vision assumes the appearance of a cloud, or a human shape having 
wings like an eagle^ and a voice addresses the man, he will have the additional 
power of heing able to foretell events. Third, when the vision comes without any 
semblance and only a voice is heard, the man is given not only the power to achieve 
success and foretell events, but he can foresee the coming of death. Should a man 
endowed with the third degree so elect, he can in due form join the Ghost Society; 
or, if he prefers, he can practice his powers individually." 

His father, the late Joseph La Fleche, told the author in 1882 that 
the Ghost Dance formerly belonged to the Ponka tribe, from whom the 
Omaha took it: though it has not been used by the Omaha since about 
A. D. 1850.^ The only inference which tbe author can draw from this 
statement of the father is that if the Omaha obtained the Ghost Dance 
from the Ponka, the Ghost Society or order of Ghost shamans is not 
an original Omaha society. That the two are closely connected is 
proved by the names, Wanaxe if a'efe-ma, the (order of) Ghost shamans 
(or, The Ghost Society), and Wanaxe if a'ef e watcigaxe. The dance of 
those who have visions of ghosts, or, The Ghost Dance. 

The Kansa have the Tee wactce, or Buffalo shaman, and an order of 
such shamans. When a Kansa had a vision or dream (i-ya-k'e-ye) of 
an animal, etc., he painted the mystery object on his shield. An old 
woman used to ''iyak'eye'' of a Hying serpent, the j^yets'a taji licka. 
The remains of such enormous serpents are found in the Black Hills, 
"and if one finds such a reptile, he must die." For an account of the 
Kansa "wakandagi" see § 60. 

The Kwapa or Ukaqpa Indians speak a dialect more closely allied to 
that of the Omaha and Ponka than to those of the Kansa and Osage. 
With them, to have superhuman communications is called dfa-q'e-dfe; 
shamans and doctors are nika qiiwe, mysterious men, and among their 

'See Jour. Am. Folk-lort-. vol. l. No. 3, p. 209; and Oiu. Sociulojiy. in 3d Ann. Rept. Eur. Etho., pp. 
347-8. 

»Oni. Sociology, p. 348. 

3Ibid, pp. 348, 349. 

•Ibid, p. 349. 

'"Death and Funeral Customs among the Omahas," in Jour. Amer. Folk-lore, vol. ii. No. 4, p. 3. 

«Oin. See., p. 353. 



394 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



societies of such men are the following : Te dfaq'edfe, Those having 
superhuman communications with the Buftalo; the Ma°tu difaq'edfe, 
Those having interviews with the Grizzly Bear; the I"ta"'dfa° tan'^ia 
d^-aq'edfe, Those having interviews with the Panther; and the J awe 
dfaq'edfe, Those having interviews with the Beaver. There were 
doubtless other orders, but they are unknown to the author's Kwapa 
informant, Alphonsus Valliere, of the Wajin:5ia or Bird geusJ 

PERSONAL MYSTERY DECORATIONS. 

§ 44. The Omaha and Ponka have certain personal mystery decora- 
tions, some of which are worn on garments, and others appear on 

- the tents of their owners. The 
makers and wearers of such 
decorations must be members 
of one of the orders of shamans. 
George Miller's father, Little 
Soldier, used to wear a buftalo 
robe decorated in the style 
shown in Figs. 156 and 157. It 
was his personal mystery deco- 
ration, which no one else could 
use. p]ven members of his gens 
(the Ictasanda, a Thunder and 
Reptile gens) feared to imitate 
it. The father promised to paint 
this decoration on four white 
blankets for his son George, but he died before he could paint the 
fourth one. 

George recei\'ed the first one when 
he was about seventeen years of age. 
Before he married he had worn out 
three. He still has the right to dec- 
orate and wear the fourth blanket, 
according to his father's intention. 
He could decorate other white blan- 
kets in this style, and wear them, if 
he wished, but he could not transmit 
to any one of his children (the grand- 
children of Little Soldier) the right 
to make and wear such a decoration, 
unless George himself should here- 
after see the objects in a dream or 
vision. 

mi • 1 i X IT- Fig. 157.— a variant of Fig. 156. 

The right to use such designs on 
a buffalo robe, blanket, tent, etc., must originate with one who has had 

'This Kwapa information was obtained in January, 1891, some time after the preparation of the 
greater part of this paper. In such a combination as d(f the <f is scarcely heard. 




Fig. 156. — George Miller's personal mystery decoration. 




DORSEY.] ORDER OF THUNDER SHAMANS. 395 

a vision or dream in wbieli the mystery objects are manifested. Those 
who could use the chiss of designs represented in the accompanying 
illustrations (Figs. 15G-161) were members of the order of Thunder 
shamans (Ing(|;a" ifa'e^6-ma). 

OKDER OF THUNDEIJ SHAMAN'S. 

§ 45. This order is composed of those who have had dreams or visions, 
in which they have seen the ThuDder-being, the Sun, the Moon, or some 
other superterrestrial objects or phenomena. 

When a person saw the Thunder-being or some other mystery ob- 
ject, he kept the matter a secret for some time. He took care to join 
the first war party that went from his camp or village. When the 
party reached the land of the enemy or got into some trouble the man 
told of his dream or vision. Should the dreamer or seer kill or grasp 
a foe while a member of the expedition he made a Thunder song. lie 
who brought back one of the enemy's horses also had the right to 
make a Thunder song. Some time having elapsed after the return of 
the warriors, the seer painted the mystery objects on a robe or blanket, 
and prepared a feast, to which he invited all the members of the order 




Fiii. 158.— Kobe of Waniiki 



of Thunder shamans. When the guests had assembh^l the robe was 
hung up and shown to them. Then all who were present rejoiced. 
From that time onward the host was a member of the order, and he 
could wear the robe with safety. 

He could give his son the right to wear such a robe, but unless that 
son had a similar vision he crmld not transmit the right to one of the 
next generation. Little Soldier painted a buft'alo robe with his per- 
sonal mystery decoration, and gave it to Two Crows, whose father had 
been one of the leaders of the order of Thunder shamans. So Two 
Crows wore the robe, and he can make another like it; but he can not 
transmit the right to his son, Ga'i"-baji. Two Crows would have been 
afraid to wear the robe or to copy the decoration on it had he not been 
a member of the order by direct inheritance from his father. A 
father can clothe his son in such a robe when that sou is large enough 



396 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 




Fia. 159.— Tent of Wauukige. 



to go courting. The man can not give sncli a robe to his daughter, but 
he can give one to his sou's son, or to his daughter's son, should that 
grandson be a large youth, who has neared or reached the age of pu- 
berty. 

If a man who became eligible by his vis- 
ion to membership in the order of Thunder 
shamans ventured to weiir the decorated 
robe without inviting the members of the 
order to a feast, he incurred the anger of 
the members and misfortune was sure to 
follow. Should a man wear such a deco- 
rated robe without having had a vision of 
the mystery object, he was in danger (if 
the object was connected with the Thun- 
der-being, etc.) of being killed by lightning. 
Every Omaha feared to decorate his robe, 
tent, or blanket with an object seen by 
another person in a dream or vision. For 
instance, George Miller would not dare to 
have bears' claws, horses' hoofs, etc., on 
his robe, because neither he nor his father 
ever saw a bear or horse mysteriously. There are penalties attached 
to violations of the prohibitions of the other orders, but George Miller 
did not know about them. 

Besides the personal mystery decoration of the robe or blanket, is 
that of the tent. PI. 
XLiv, E is a sketch of a 
tent, furnished to the 
author by Dried Buffalo 
Skull, an old man of the 
^atada gens of the Oma- 
ha. The decoration of 
this tent was the per- 
sonal mystery or "qube" 
of Hupef a, Sr., father of 
Hupe^*a,Jr (now known 
as j^enuga ;anga),of the 
Wasabe-hit'aji or Black 
Bear sub-gens of the(pa- 
tada. After the death 
of Hupefa, Sr.,the deco- 
ration became the j^rop- 





Fic. IGO.— Robe of (jia<iube. 



erty of his kinsman, Agaha-wacuce, of the same sub-gens, and fsither of 
^jafi"na"i)aji. The circle at the top, representing a bear's cave, is some- 
times painted blue, though Agaha-wacuce had it reddened. Below the 
four zigzag lines (representing the lightnings of different colors) are the 



DORSET.] 



GENERIC FORMS OF DECORATIOM". 



397 



prints of bears' paws. The lower part of the tent was I thickened with 
ashes or cliarcoal. Among the four zigzag lines, red, according to Mr. 
Francis La Fleche. symbolizes the east. 




Fig. 161. — Robe of jahe-jap'e. 

Wanukige, a chief of the Ictasanda gens, had a vision of the aurora 
borealis, so he depicted this on his robes and tent, as shown in Figs. 1.58 
and 159. On the tent were seven stripes, three on each side of the 
entrance and one in the rear. Each robe that he wore had seven 
stripes. 

Fig. 1(J0 represents the personal mystery decoration of (^'aqube of the 
Aja"ze gens. George Miller's father could 
wear this decoration, but the right to it 
couUl not be transmitted by him to any 
one else, jahe-jap'o, of the ^^e-4" sub- 
gens of the (|"atada gens, once had a vis- 
ion of two stars and the new moon. Con- 
sequently he decorated his butialo robe, 
as shown in Fig. HJl, and joined the order 
of Thunder shaman.s. He died when the 
author was at the Omaha agent-y (between 
1878 and 1880). 

/ \ 

OEXEKIC FORMS OF HECOItATlOX. ' \ 

§ 46. There are examples of generic ^ 
forms of decoration, as well as those of ^ 
specitic forms. For instance, when a per- 
son had a vision of the night, or of the 
Thunder-being, or one of some other su 
]>erterrestrial object, he blackened the upper part of his tent and a 
small portion on each side of the entrance, as shown in Fig. lOl*. 




3 



Fig. 162. — Generic decoration referring to 
uijiht. etc. 



398 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



It was given thus by George Miller: 

Niaci"ga amd jigudi cte ba"' da"'cte i^-a'e^e ama ^i ug(|',i"'i 

People the where ever night for example they have the tent they 



pi. 
sub. 

wi°d6ta" sabefai, ki ci 

one-half the they blacken and again 
length 



dwell 



visions pi. 

of it. sub. in 

agudi cte nikaci"ga ama ing^a"' iif'a'efe ama 

where ever people the pi. thunder they have the pi. 

sub. being visions sub. 
of it. 



CI ega" ug</'i"'-biama. 

again so they dwell in, 
they say. 

SrECIFIC FORMS OF DECORATION. 

A specitic form related to the generic one Just described is shown in 
Fig. 163. The blackened part of the tent represents the night, and the 

star denotes the morning star. There was 
a star on the left hand at the back of the 
tent, and another star on the right side. 
Black and blue are occasionally inter- 
changeable in Omaha symbolism; hence 
we find that the night is represented by a 
blue band on a coyote skin worn by the 
elder A"pa°-ska, and subsequently by his 
son and namesake, when the latter was a 
small boy. The blue band was worn next 
the shoulders of the owner (Fig. 164). 

The decoration refers to his '' qube" 
or " sacred vision." Little Cedar, of the 
\ Ma"finka-gaxe (Omaha) gens, belonged, 
we are told, to the Mi" i^-a'c^^e-ma, or order 
of Sun and Moon shamans, probably iden- 
tical with the order of Thunder shamans. Fig. 165 represents a vision 
which Little Cedar once had, described thus by George Miller: 




Fig. 163.— Tent of A''pa°-ska, Sr. 




liu. 104.— Kobe of A"pa''-ska, Sr. 



Ga"' niaci"ga ak4 ic^-a'efA-bi ega"' fetega" ^i uga te ug(|'i°'-biam^ 

And man the having had a vis- like this tent painted the 



having had 

ion, they say 



std. ob. 



be dwelt in, 
they say, 



Ji*d 



DORSET. 1 



SPECIFIC FORMS OF DECORATION. 



399 



Mazi-jin'ga ijaje afi"'-l)iainii. Siil»e te luV" ke e gaxai; nia"'ba fa" 

Cedar Little his name luul, tli.y Bla.k tlir iiii;ht the that ma.lr moon the cv 

efa^be te gaxai. Nia"'ba ufaiiMa faii'di in'kaci"ga uiifi"' gaxai, gau'^ii 

euierying the nia.h. Moon in the in thr ihi.soii sittinj; made and 

midst of [lart in 

ifa'efai finke e te. Nia"'ba efa"be ati-namli iiacifi" Hga"-na"'i. 

one seen in the ime that the Moon emerjjinj; eomesrcfi;Mhirl\% hhizes some- usu.lllv 

a vision who wiun ' (sends up what 

liilht) 

The blaek band let'ers to the night ; the circh', to the moon; the eir- 
eumscribed ligure is a gliost that lie saw in the moon; and the dots 
above the moon refer to tiie " white wliieli stands aliove th<' rising sim 
or moon." PI. xliv b shows another tent (U-coration of the same man. 
The red circle represents the sun, in wliich stands a man hokling the 
:^a-ca-ge, or deer rattles, made of the hard or eallous knobs found near 
the hoofs of the deer. These knobs are split, hollowed out, and strung 
on sticks. The tent being very large, the tigure of the man was al- 






Fiii. 165. — Tent of Mazi-jiuga — ghost vision. 



Fkj. 1G6._A tent of Kiku(fib(*a'' 



most life size, and a real feather was tied to his bead. The blue band 
at the bottom may represent night, but there is no certainty about it. 

§ 47. Fig. lOG is the decoration of one of the tents of Xi-ku-fi-bfa", 
father of the present Wacka"-ma°(fi" (Hard Walker), an ex-chief of the 
Omaha. Nikuf ibfa" was one of the two leaders of the order of Thunder 
shamans, and was regarded as being very ''qabe" or mysterious. The 
black baud at the bottom refers to the night, and above it are seen the 
moon and a star. The old man named one (»f his grandchildren Ha° akipa 
(Meets the Night), after the vision to which the tent decoration refers. 

George Miller furnished the description of Nikuf ibf a"'s tent, obtained 
from an old woman, who is his widow: 

"Ga" wiqti ^a"'ba-mj'iji fa^'ja, ufai ega" ana"a"hri. Ga"' ingfa"' 



And 



I 

myself 



I did not 
see him 



though they have 
told about 
him 



I have 
heard it. 



And Thunder 
Being 



kifC 



400 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



i^a'e^a-biama, ada" ^iDiiiri'ge gaxai te gate, j^iliujja" (•a°:;a bagfejal 

he had a vision of therefore raiubow made it the that ob. Smoke-hole at the painted in 
hira, they say (past part spots 

act) 

te, 6 ufai lia wa'iijinga igaqfa" aka. Ma'^'cia^a afi"' akii, a-biama. 

the that toW it old woman his wife the sub. Oii hijth having had he said, 

(past 

act) 

E-ja cti 

There too 



him reached they say. 
there again 



maja 

land 



4! ugk te 

tent painted tht 



fe ega", a-biama. 

this liliu he said, they 
say. 

awatega" gaxe ga"'(f'ai 



Qube'qti gaxai 

Very myste- 
rious 

511, ga"' 



They 
made him 



niaci°ga, 

man 



to make he wished when at any 



it 




rate 

te masi e wakai 



ada" 

there- 
fore 

ega" gaxai. Bag^ejai 

so he made it. Made spotted 
by painting 

te." 



he hail 



that it meant the (past 
act). 



That is, " I myself did iiot see him, but 
I have heard what was tokl. They say 
that he had a vision of the Thunder-be- 
ing, so he made that rainbow which ap- 
pears in the figure (Fig. 167). The okl 
woman, his widow, has told that he 
painted the top of the tent, near the 
smoke-hole, in spots. Tbey say that he 
said that the Thunder-being had carried 
him up on high, and that the place there 
resembled this world. The man was re- 
garded as very mysterious; therefore he 
decorated his tent according to the 
pattern that he wished to make. The 
j)ainted spots represent hail." Many years ago, Niku^ibifca" said that 



/ 



/ 



/ 



Fi<;. ltJ7.— Ani)tlKT tent uf >.'ikiici 





Fio. 168.— Blanket of Cuj|a-n)a''(fi". 

he had been carried up into the world above this one, and that he found 



DOHSEY.] 



OMAHA MYSTERY DECORATIONS. 



401 



it resembled the world in which \vc live. The rainbow and liad de- 
picted on the tent formed part of the vision, but their exact sio-niti- 
cance has not been explained. 

Cn-^ia ma"-f i", an Omaha, had a, vision which gave him the right to 
use the decoration given in Fig. 108. The meanings of the diHerent 
marks have not been learned. Cu^ia ma"fi" bequeathed the blanket 
to liis sou, ;5jaxe-gia' (Plyiug Crow), now known as Gilbert Morris. 

§48. The old chief j^e-sa" (Ta sone of Maj. Long), Distant- white 
Buffalo, father of the chiefs Standing Hawk and Fire Chief, had a vision 
of a cedar tree, which he painted on each side of his tent, as seen in 
Fig. 169. The next sketch (Fig. 170) shows the back part of another 
tent of xe-sa". The blue band near the top is called " sabe" (black); 
below this is the sun and a blue rainbow; near the bottom are two 
horsetails. The only decorations on the front of the tent are two 
horsetails, one on each side of the entrance. This tent was used by 





Fk;. 1G9.— Teut uf j,c-sa° ; viaiuu of a codar. Fk;. 170.— Ttut of xe-sa"; sun and rainbow vision. 



Standing Hawk after the death of his lather. This decoration may 
have been made after a vision of horses, as Standing Hawk was a 
member of the order of Horse Shamans (Cange i<|;a'efe-ma). George 
Miller speaks thus about it : 

atai ega°' i(^a'e^e da"'ctr'a"'i t(^, 

Iio was as lie had a perhaps the (past 

beyond vision act) 

caii'ge siii'de ctT gaxai, hide 

horse tail too he made bottom 



Ga"' 

And 



niaci"ga aka nikagahi 

man the sub. chief 



mi"' fit" ugai. 



i';i. 



Ci 



tlio ho painted he painted the Again 
cv.ob. tent with it. 



ke'di. 

at the 



That is, "'As the man was a 



j^ihujja" dasi <fa" sabG^ai. 

Smoke hole tip end the part he blackened 

head chief, he may have had a vision, for he occupied a tent on which 
he painted the sun, and he also decorated it with horse-tails at the lower 
part. He painted the border of the smoke-hole a dark blue (^u sab6, 
11 ETH 26 



402 



A STUDY OF felOUAN CULTS. 



which is some-tiuies called, sabe)." 



g^xai 

did 



te'di, 

when 



ijiu'ge 

hia son 



ama 

tho 1)1. 
sub. 



"I^adi ama da"'cte ega" 

His fiillaer the pi. sub. perhaps so 

i<J;a'c(|5a-baji ctewa'" ega" guxe- 

thoy did not have even so they 
visions of it 



na°'-biamd., ada° ega" gaxai." That is, " When the fathers 

usually did, they there- so he did 

say fore 

decorate their tents in consequence of their respective visions, their 
sons (who succeed them) usually imitate them (or dwell in the decor- 
ated tents), even when they tliemselves have not had visions of the ob- 
ects. Therefore he (i. e., Standing Hawk) did so." 

George Miller told the following about ^jede-gahi or Fire Chief, 
another sod of j^e-sa" : 

Oi 6ga° jede-gahi aka ugfi^'i w^a4a"'be. Wata"'zihi i;i wa:^a"'be 

Again so Fire Chief the he sat in I saw Corn-stalk painted I saw 

sub. it on the 

tent 

^a°'ja, awatega" ifapaha"-mdji <|;a"'ja, nikagahi ega" ega"" ug(f'i"'i t?. 

though of what sort I knew not though chief like so he sat in the 

(past 
act) 

Wata"zi <|;i"' cti waqu'be gaxai. Ki ci' jede-gahi ak4 ta"'wa"g^a° 

Corn the col. too mysterious he made and again Fire Chief the gous 

ob. it sub. 

e!ja ama Wajin'ga-(|;at^ji auui wahaba pahan'ga ju't'a" te'di (f-ata-bajT 

his the pi. Bird eat not the pi. ear of corn lirst matures when they do not 

sub. sub. eat 

wah4ba <j'i"', iiikaci"ga ama na"'wape fate tai te', (paiai j[i, wahaba 



ear of corn the col. 
ob. 

(|;i°', wajiu'ga 

the col. bird 
ob. 

biama !;i ug;i. 



peojjle 



the pi. 

sub. 



fear them 



they will 
Vat 



the 

(act) 



They 
eat 



if ear of corn 



((•asni 

devour 



they say tent paiutiivj; T' 
/ 



Inke-sabe <4kadi cti ega" giixe na"- 

Shouldcr black among too so make usu- 

tlie ally 

Hafi'ga likadi cti ega" gaxe-ua"'-biama .ji uga. 

emost iimong too so make 



wej^uhai. 

they fear 
them 



imonji 
the 



usu- they say tent painting, 
ally 

This refers to Fig. 171, and may be thus 
rendered : "And I have likewise seen the 
tent of Fire Chief. It was decorated with 
cornstalks, but I do not know the reason 
for it. He dwelt in such a tent because 
he was a chief. Corn was regarded as 
"waqube,'' mysterious. In the sub-gens 
of Fire Chief, the Wajinga-fataji, or, those 
who eat no small birds, the people feared 
/ 1 to eat the first ears of corn that matured, 

lest the small birds (particularly black- 
birds) should come and devour the rest of 
the crop. There was a similar tent decor- 
ation in the IFike-sabe and Ilanga gentes." 
Fig. i7i.-Cornstaik decoration of tho jn the former, it was used by Wacjaga (see 

tents of Firo Chief and Waqaga. ^ ,-o\ mi j_ 11 t 

§ 53). Tlie cornstalks and ears were green, 
the tips of the ears were black. There were two similar cornstalks ou 
the back of the tent. 



/ 




CORN AND THE BUFFALO. 



403 



CORN AND THE BUFFALO. 



§ 49. Com is regarded as a '' mother" and the bufl'alo as a "grand- 
father" among the Omaha and other tribes.^ In the Osage tradition, 





**%ai>>^^ 



P'lG. 172 — Kobo of Ni<factiigc. 

corn was bestowed u^ton the i>e(>ple by four bulfalo Iddls or "grand- 
fathers.'" ^ Dr. Washington Matthews tells <»f a. siniiljir Arikara belief 
about an ear of eorn.^ (See § 42.) 






Fiu. 173.— Dubama"(fi"'s liitbtr's tent. Fig. 174.— Ma"tcu-na°ba's tent. 

OTHER OMAHA MYSTERY DECORATIONS. 

§ 50. Among the members of the order of Buffalo (j^e i<fa'e<fe-ma) was 
Ni^actage, whose robe is shown in Fig. 172. The red band is at the top. 



'See Om. Soc, in 3d Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn. ^^123, 163, and several uij'ths in Contr. to N. A. Ethnol- 
ogy, vol. VI. 

'See Osage Traditions, in 6tb Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethn., p. 379. 

'U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., Haydeu, Miscell. Publ., No, 7, 1877; Ethnograpliy and Philology of 
Hidatsa Indians, p. 12. 



404 A STUDY OF SIUUA^^ CULTS. 

The black spots represent the places where the buffaloes play '-buffalo 
wallows." Buffalo hoofs are in blue. 

Duba-ma"fi"'s father had a visiou of horses, hence he wished to de- 
pict horse-tails and tracks on his tent, as found in Fig. 173; but he died 
before he tinished it. 

The father of Ma°tcu na"ba had a vision of horses, and bequeathed 
to his sou Ma"tcu-na°ba the right to decorate his tent in the style shown 
in Fig-. 174. The yellow was connected with the vision. When the 
owner dwelt in an earth-lodge, the horse-tail was tied to a long pole, 
which was thrust through the opening at the top of the lodge. So when 
he used his skin tent, the horse-tail hung from the top of a long pole 
above the smoke-hole. 

When the Omaha dwelt near the present town of Homer, Xebr.. and 
Wacka"hi was a young child, he went out to play, and fell asleep. He 
said that he was aroused by the sounds ma<le by many chickens crow- 




\ ^ 



Fig. 175. — Wacka°hi 3 tent. Fiu. 176.— Tent of nnknown Omaha. 

ing and caclding. In those days {Jide George Miller) there were no 
white people in that neighborhood ; but now in that very place where 
Wacka^hi had the vision, there is a wealthy family living, and besides 
large herds they have a great many chickens. In remembrance of that 
occurrence, Wacka°hi painted his tent with his personal decoration as 
given in Fig. 175. 

An unknowTi Omaha had a vision of deer, so he decorated his tent 
accordingly. (See Fig. 176.) George Miller could not furnish the man's 
name. 

§ 51. Among the members of the order of Grizzly Bear shamans was 
an Omaha named x^bi''^- (Frog). The top of his tent was paiuted yellow, 
as shown in Fig. 177. There was no other decoration; but this yellow 
evidently was connected with a grizzly bear \'ision, as it appears in the 
decoration adopted by the father of Two Crows, who was not only one 



t»«ai-l OTHEB OMAHA MTSTERT DECORaTTOXS^ -i^.'lkD 

of the two leaders of the order of Thuiiider - > Jtngtwi^ kt^^ec^ma 

but also a member of the orders of Bunaio and irriizlT Bear .^aman^ 
ijQe iea-ee^-ma aud Ma^Tcii iea*e<ic-ma . See PI. xui^r - 
griizly bear is depicted as emerging iT»m his den. Tuc 
sents the groimd. 

This decoratJon of the tent of Two Crows" fiiher is thus deseribed 
by George Miller: Ma-teu i*a-efai ega^ ii t^ ega* gaxaL Ma'teu 

wad " '" ^- : " !e ke ma'^taia eea'^be ii w ■ - ' '. ga'^ ega* 

g;\xai i\ t^. jsm'de k^ jiif^iia*'i, ji hebe k^ uf^na*!" That is. 

••^^1ieii ihfv have iiad visioas of grizzly bears, they dt 
tents aeoordiuglv. AATien ihev see inizxiv bear>, rhev '. 




jL 




FK5. 177.— IVjii i\f i^bi-a. Fts. ITS,— IV«« <i^E j> Ka; *ji ^Iv >-*i Mt <oi^:V vfesMt- 

eoniiug out of the grtniud, aud s<i they jviiui the tents* They always? 
(or usually^ paiut the gixuuul blue, aud part of the teiil they paint in 
a yellow baud." This shows the «.x>uveutioual ust» of wlors. See PI. 
xi.i V, K. for the sketch of another tent ivpivseuiiug tho vision i^t a gri^^ly 
iH'ar. 

^ r»i\ rhiw Ivausi^ dtHHM-ations follow. They are taken trxnn an 
original sketch made by a Kansj^ man, known to ihe^hite x^tHH^^*^ !** 
Stephen Siubbs. The lirst tent (Vig. ITv^Us that of a man who had 
ta>itHl and held mysterious ivnununioation with an eagle whioh g^^ve 
him sonu^ feathers. He had daiuHnl the pijv danet^ ontn* for snune one. 
At the base of this tent aiv stvn two i^^atv pi^vs on each siiie of the 
eutranre. .Vt the back atv a black lH\»r and a large tnvtle. The 
stvond tent ^V^g. I7l>> is that of a man who had danee«l the pijH* daiuH> 
thrtv times. r>utVaK> tails aiv fastemni to the tov»s of the triangular 



406 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



pieces forming the shelter of the smoke-hole, feathers hang from the 
two shields, and the stars are above and on the base of the tent skins. 
Feathers, shields, and stars are also on the back of this tent. 

Fig. 180 is the tent of a man who has danced the pipe dance fonr 
times. It is very probable, judging from the stars on the tents, that 





Fig. 179.— Kansa decorated tent. 



Fig. 180 Kauaa decorated tent. 



the owners of the second and third Kansa tents had had visions. The 
Kansa say that when a man has danced the ])ipe dance twice, his tent 
can be decorated with two cornstalks at the front (one on each side of 
the entrance), and two more at the back. The x)ipes used in the calu- 
met or pipe dance are regarded as '"Wakanda^^a^ica"" by the Omaha 




Fig, 181.— Maoze-guhe's robe. 



and Ponka, and the inference is that the Kansa and Osage had a sim- 
ilar belief about these pipes and the accompanying dance. Perhaps 
there was a time when no man could undertake the pipe dance unless 
he had a vision of some kind. 



DORSEY. ] 



OMAHA NIKIE DECORATIONS. 



407 



OMAHA NIKIE DECORATIONS. 

§ 53. As the geiites of the Omaha and Pouka are regarded 
"Wakaiida^afica'V the "nikie" and "nikie names" have a 
significance. George Miller has furnished 
the author with a few nikie decorations, 
which are now given. 

Ma"ze-guhe, an Omaha, belonged to the 
Wait'igije sub-gens of the Inkesabe gens. 
The decoration of his robe (Fig. LSI) marks 
the nikie of the sub-gens, as it consisted of 
spiral forms known as '' wafigije." That of 
the tent (Fig. 182) refers to the nikie of the 
entire gens. In the latter case, the buffalo 
head was painted on the back of the tent. 

Duba-ma"f i", who has a nikie name refer- 
i-ing to the buftalo, belongs to the Wafigije 
sub-gens. His father wore a black blanket 
embroidered with beadwork in two rows of 
spirals, between which was a star. All 
these figures were made of white beads. 
(See Fig. 183.) 

In the Pipe sub-gens of the Ifike-sabc there were several t< 
ations. Of the first, George Miller speaks thus: 



as being 
religi<ms 




nt decor 



^J»«W»gfea»3»l»»i»««IB«Wl«t M« W« w ^ ^ 



Fiu. 183.— Duba-ina"(fi°'8 father"^ lil;. 

Nikaci"'ga-ma ta"'wa"g(f;a"'-ma niniba t'a"' amd Ifike-sabt^ akadi 

The people those in tlie gontcs pipo liave tbo pi. lUack shoulder among 

8iib. the 



408 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



Ivi wedaji-ma wodalia"-uiaji. aii'ka-b;iji 

I do not know tlieni tliev are not so 



painted the And those elsewhere 
tent with 



^1 ugai, luiiiba m, 

tent they pij 

paint 

eb^ega". luke-sabe akadi nikagiilii akd ^ga" gaxai ebt^-ega", a"'ctewa"' 

I think. Black shoulder amonsr oliief the sub. so made I think of any pattern 

the 

g^xa-bilji ebfega". Niiiiba waqiibe gaxai ^fi. uiiiiba ja"' ko bcj-aska 

he did not make I think. Pipe mysterious made when pipe 



mysterious 
thins 



wood the tlat 
Ig. Ob. 



gaxai, 

made 



put porcupine 
work around it 




/ 



/ 



/ 



/ 



ufiskai, ■vrajiu'gada ajii te, ;alii" jide ika"ta"'i." 

bird heads put many the "deerfur" red tied to it. 

on it past act 

That is, ''Those persons who belong to 
the Inke-sabt' snb-gens known as Keepers 
of the Pipes, paint their tent(s) with the 
pipe decoration. I do not know of any 
other persons, members of other gentes, 
usiug this decoration: I think that no 
others nse it. I think that the liikesabg 
chief decorates his tent in this manner, 
and that he did not decorate it in any way 
lie i^leased. When the sacred pipes were 
made (on the tent) the pipestem was made 
flat, porcnpine work was put around it, 
several heads of birds were fastened on it, 
and tufts of reddened horses' hair were 
tied to it at intervals." (See Fig. 184 and 
PI. XLiv. c.) This Inke-sabe tent had only 

two pipes on it — one on each side of the entrance. 
The second Ihke-sabe tent decoration is thus described by tlie same 

authority : 
A°jiii'ga te'di ^i'-ugfi"' wa;a"'be y[\, ^ekega" ug^'i^'i. Xiniba niaca" 

The small when tent dwelt in I saw them when like this they dwelt Pipe quill 

Ig. ob. " in feather 

ugf^ i;i wa;a"'be Xiniba t'a°' akadi, Waqdga ega" i^i wa{^a"'be. 

attached painted I saw Pipe had amonjr Burrs 

to at the tent 
right with 
angles 

Niniba waqiibe ke ekiga"'qti fa"'ja, e maca'^ ngf^ gaxai, niniba 

Pipe sacred thelsr. just like it thougli tliat quill attached to made pipe 



Fi(i. 1S4.— lEke-sabe tent decoration. 



amon^ 
the 



painted I saw them 
the tent 
with 



ob. 



w^awa" ak^6 ha. ^'^"'J^ niniba ke 



calumet that is it 



feather at right angles 

e inikagahi ^ji^jaxai, niaci"'ga 



Though 



pipe thelg. that chief by they make 

ob. aforesaid means of it themselves 



people 



amil ^taqti gilxai niniba waqtibe. Xiaci"'ga ama piaji'qti ctectewa"', 

make it pipe sacred People the pi. very bad notwithstanding 



the pi. exceed 
sub. inglv 



the pi. 
sub. 



akit'6 akikifdqti ma°fi"'i ctectewa"', kikideqti ma°fi"'i ctectt^wa"'. 

foreign contending they walk notwithstanding shooting often they walk notwithstanding 
nation fiercely together and fiercely 

niniba ke efa"be a^V" ahii 5[i, u^uci k& 

pipe thelg. coming thev take it when in the the 
ob. fortir thither middle Ig. 

liue 

miikicta" tai'. Teqi gaxai. niaci"'ga amii. 

they stop will Precious they peojde the pi. sub. 

shooting at make it 

one another 



uhii afi"' a^ai' 5(1, 

following they when 

its course take it 



IJOHHKV.l 



OMAHA NIKIE DECORATIONS. 



409 




Tlint is, "When, in my cliildlKuxl, 1 saw tlie tents in which 
the iHtoph', (lw(dt, th(;y were of tliis sort. (See Fiy-. 185.) I saw 
tlie tent decora t«Ml witli the pipes havinj>- 
feathers atta(;licd to each pipe at rij^lit 
angles. I saw a tent of this sort when it 
was occupied ])y Wacpiga of tlie Pipe sub- 
gens. (See another tent decoration of this 
man, § 4.S.) Though these pipes closely 
resemble the peace pipes (niniba wac^ube), 
they are made with the feathers attached 
to the stems at right angles. These are 
the pipes used in the jiipe dance. By 
means of tln^ ])ii)<'s the iieojde made for 
themselves that which was e([uivalcnt to 
(or, lead to) tlie cjiicftainshi]). So they re- 
garded the sacred pii»es as of the greatest / 
importance. Even when the people were ^- 
very bad, even when different tribes con- 
tinued to struggle with one another; even 
when they shot often at one another, when some i)ersons came forth 
witli the peace i)ipes, and bore them to a place between the opi)osing 

forces, carrying them all along the 




•%\ 



r 



:^ 



1 




Fig. 185. — Iuke-Hab6 tent decoration. 



lines, they stopped shooting at one 
another. The Indians regarded 
the pii)es as precious.'' 

A j^ada nikie tent decoration is 
shown in the tent of Heqaga. ( PI. 
XLiv, c.) This tent had two pipes 
Ij on each side of the tent, double the 
number on the Inke-sabe tent(Fig. 
1S4). 

Fig. 186 is given as the nikie 
decoration of a robe ])elonging to 
Waqaga. The bird on the robe is 
an eagle. Members of the Pipe sub-gens of the inke-salM" have eagle 
birth names. And we know that Wacjaga belonged to that sub gens. 

The author understood Joseph La Fleche and Two Crows to say, in 
1882, that while nikie names possessed a sacredness, it was only the 
sacredness of antiijuity, and that they were not " Wakandajafica"." 
But the author now thinks that such a statement needs modifica- 
tion; for, besides what appears at the beginning of this section, we 
know that among the Osage and Kansa the nikie names are associ- 
ated with the traditions preserved in the secret society of seven de- 
grees, and that this applies not only to names of gentes and sub-gentes, 
but also to personal nikie names. The author frightened an Osage in 
January, 1883, by mentioning in publi<' some of this class of names. 



Fio. 186.— Waiiaga's robe. 



410 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

OMAHA KIKIE CUSTOMS. 

§ 54. Among tlio iiikie of th»^ Omalia, tli(^ following may be men- 
tioned: The Wajinga-fataji, or "Blackbird people," had a curious 
custom during the harvest season. At that time the birds used to 
devour the corn, so the men of this sub-gens undertook to iirevent 
tliem, by chewing some grains of corn which they spit around over the 
held.' During a fog, the ^je-'i" men would draw the figure of a turtle 
on the ground, with its h(;ad to the south. On the head, tail, middle 
of the l)ack, and each leg, were placed small pieces of a (red) breech- 
cloth with some tobacco. They imagined that this would make the 
fog disappear very soon.'^ The ^ja^ze gens, being Wind people, flap 
their blankets to start a breeze when mosquitoes abound.^ The x^"d^ 
gens have a form for the naming of a child on the fifth morning after 
its birth, according to luion, one of the chiefs of that gens.* Tn the 
feast on the hearts and tongues,'' the Hanga men who belong to the 
sub-gens keeping the sacred pole, eat the buftalo tongues, though the 
bulfalo is their "grandfather" and the eponym of their gens; but 
they can not eat the " ^a " or ])uffalo sides. However, the other Hanga 
men, who can not eat the tongues, are allowed to eat the consecrated 
l)ufialo sides, after the ceremonies connected with the thanksgiving 
and anointing of the sacred pole.^ No Omaha child had its hair cut 
nntil it had been taken to an old man of the Ictasanda gens, to have 
the tirst locks cut, the first moccasins put on the child's feet, and 
prayca's to be said over it. Sometimes the old man said " j^ucpaha, 

O ^aiidoliild, 

Wakan'da fs,^6fif6-de ^i^ci ma"(|',ih'ka si d^agfe tate," i. e., "O 

WakMnda pity you wliou a lontr time soil foot yon set it sliall, 

M'ect on 

grandchild, may Wakanda pity you, and may your feet rest a long 
time on the ground ! " Another form was sometimes used — " Wakanda 
fa'efife tate. Ma"^irika si nfagfe tate. Gudihega" ne tate," i. e., 
"May Wakanda pity you! May your feet tread the ground! May 
you go ahead (or, live hereafter) ! " " 

§55. When there is a "blizzard," the other Kansa beg the members 
of the Tcihaci" or Ka"ze gens to interpose, as they are Wind i)eople. 
"j\[i'tcigu-e', ha'"ba ya'li ku"'bla eyau'. Ciii'gajin'ga yi'ta 

O grandfather, ila.\ good I desire indeed. Child your 

kik'u"'yakiye' tee au'^, a'be an'." i. e., "They say, 'O grandfather (said 

you cause liim to will . they 

be decorated (or .say 

])aiuted) 

to one of the Ka"ze gens), I wish good weather. Please cause one of 
your children to be decorated ! ' " Then the youngest son of one of the 

'Om. Soc., in 3d Ann. Eept. Bur. Ethn., p. 238. ■> Ibid., pp. 245. 246. 

^Ibid., p. 240. « Ibid., pp. 290, 291. 

sibid.. p. 241. <= Ibid., p. 295. 

'For detailed aeconnt.s, see "GUmpses of Child-life among the Omaha Indians,'' by Miss A. C. 
Fletcher, in Jour. Am. Folk-lore, vol. i, No. 2, pp. 115-118; and Omaha Sociology, in 3d Ann. Kept. 
Bur. Ethn., pp. 249, 250. 



DOHSHT-1 OiLlEJ. ivr. pryxA rABOOS. 411 

Ka^ze men. say one over 4 feet high, is ebosen. ibr the iwirtwse. aad 

pamteii with, red paint I'. sama^jri - ■ ■ • - ..^ 

rolls over and over in the -inovr a;. j 

aroaiid him. This is ^Rtpposed to stop the storm. 



GfO VES^HL^JH 1' AI. ESSTSniESTALITTES. 

§56. Among the On. ' , ' , u 

''•W"akaQ«ia4.a»cioa^"' ar^ - . , 

the keepers of the saered pipes, the gentes, sub-gentesy aod taboos^ 

none of which can be regarded ; ' - ' ; , ' 

pear to be fetiches: The Siicreil - _ , i 

genSy the two peace pipes kept by the Inke-sabe gens, the mystenoas 
objects kept bv the -keepers of the pipes" in tiie i^jr ' - ^ . )Li^- 
finka-gaxe. j^e-sinde. jfl-d.a>, and Ictasanda gentes. > a' or 

pipes nseil in the calmnet dance), the sacred p«>Ie, the sacred hide of a 
white buffalo, the s;'- '•':^'' ' -. -<-^ r ^ivinatiou. and the sacred clam shell 
of the Elk gens.' 

$ 31- OmASA. AXI> POJRtA TAJBOOe. 

Bnffalo skull not touched by — 

1. jjd-dii it-aji siib-gens of (fata. la). 

:?- Waf igije sub-gens of lilke-s; 

3. j^e-^inde gens (Om.). 

4. Part oi the Wacabe geujj ^ F^>iik;i . 

5. Part of yecta gens P.). 
Buffalo tongue not eaten by — 

1. Watfrigije sub-g«: • > ' ' "" ■- ^ 

2. Haiigaqti or W - , ^ ^jra i>m.). 

3. Part of y ikadaona gens (P.). 

4. Part of Wacabe gens ^P.)- 

5. Part of yecta geus i P.^- 

Buffalo (black) horns not touched by part of luke-sab^ geus (Om.). 
Buffalo sides (when consecrated), uot eaten by j^a waqube ^taji sub- 
gens of Uaiiga geus ^i->m.>. 
Buffalo rib (lowest oue, lefij-ucag^^e). not eaten by j[e-siude gens «^ 
Buffalo aud domestic calf uot eateu when the hair is red, but citu . c 

eateu wheu the hair turus black, by j[e-sinde geus (i.>tn.). 
Buffalo calf can uot be toucheil, wheu its hair is •"^i" ^yellow or red)^ by 

a sub- geus of the ^ecta geus i^P.). 
Buffalo calf ctiu uot be eateu at auj' time by — 
1. liig^e-jide geus ^Om.^. 
3. Pait of Wacabe geus ^P. . 
3. Part of Necta geus (P.). 



> Sim 9^ 33I--:i&l aadl Cika^ s.t af «.>iitaha SucK/lo^. bk 3a Juttt. S«^. Bur. Etlui. 



412 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

Buffalo tail cau not be touched by part of Nikadaoua geus (P.). 
Deer not eaten by — 

1. Part of Hisada geus (P.). 

2. Part of Xikadaoua geus (P.). 

Male deer not eaten by Elk geus (Om.) ; but Deer gens can eat veulson. 
Skin of auy auimal of the deer family can not be touched by j^ada gens 

(OmO. 
Flesh of male elk not eaten by Elk gens (Om,). 
Bladder and sinew of male elk not touched by Elk gens (Om.). 
Elk not eaten by part of XikadaDua geus (P.). 
Turtles not eaten by Turtle sub-gens (Om.). 
Black bear skin not touched by — 

1. Black bear sub-gens (Om.). 

2. Black bear sub-gens (P.). 

Wild-eat skin, not touched by pipe sub-gens of Deer geus (Om.). 

Craues and swans not eaten by part of Haiiga gens (Om.). 

Swans not touched (formerly?) by Mi"xasa° wefaji sub-gens of :Ma°- 

^iiika-gaxe gens (Om.). 
Small birds not eaten by Wajinga-^ataji (Blackbird or Small bird) 

sub-gens of the ^atada gens (Om.). They can eat wild turkeys, 

ducks, geese, swans, cranes. When members of this sub-geus, 

are sick they can eat grouse. 
(Small liirds) blackbirds, {hlaclc ones), swallows, and grouse not eaten 

by part of Hisada gens (P.). 
Eeptiles neither touched nor eaten by — 

1. Ictasanda gens (Om.). 

2. Wajaje gens (P.). 

Blood not touched by part of the (fixida gens (P.), hence their name, 

Wami it'aji. 
Bed corn not eaten by a sub-gens of tlie lukesabe gens (Om.). 
Charcoal not touched by — 

1. A sub-gens of the lukesabe gens (Om.). 

2. The Pipe sub-gens of the Deer gens (Om.). 

3. A sub-gens of the ^ixida gens (P.). 

4. The Pipe sub-gens of the Wajaje gens (P.). 
VerdigTis not touched by — 

1. ^ja"ze geus (Om.). 

2. Pipe sub-gens of Deer gens eOm.,. 

3. Part of the (f ixida geus (P.). 

4. Pipe sub-gens of the Wajaje gens (P.). 

FETICHISM. 

§ 58. According to Dr. Tylor, "Fetichism is tne doctrine of spirits 
embodied in, or attached to, or conveying induence through, certain 
material objects.' 

1 Prim. Culture, vol. il. p. 132. 



ooBszY] FETICHES OF THE THIBE AND GEN<. 413 

F»-ti()it'> luiiy bt' re;iai«lt/d as of two kind.s — those pertainiug to the 
tiibe<»i geus, and those beloDging to indi\-idual members of the social 
organization. Some fetiches are amulets, others are charms. 

FETICHES OF THE TKIBE AXI» GEXS. 

§ 59. (jiimha tribal fetich eif. — The sacred pole and white bnftalo hide, 
in the keeping of the Haiiga gens until a itw years ago, but now in the 
Peabod y Museum of Archa-ologj- and Ethnology at Cambridge. Mass., 
were regarded by the Omaha as •• wakauda ega",^ i. e., -like Wakandas," 
or '^partaking of the nature of deities.*' During the public thauks- 
gi\-ing after the bnftalo hunt, jtrayer was made towards the sacred p<:»le.^ 

The sacred tent in which the sacred i>ole of the two tribes was kept 
was never painted. When thei)eople remained in their permanent vil- 
lages of earth lodges, tlie entrance of the sacred tent faced the sun- 
rise; but when the tribe migrated, the entrance of the tent faced the 
direction in which they traveh-d. The i>ole was never exx)osed to dew, 
rain, or snow, but was kept within the lodge, during any kind of bad 
weather. It was never laid down, but was 
tied to a tent pole. In good weather it was 
exposed to ^-iew. Sometimes it was tied to — - 

one of the tent poles near the entrance, as 
.shown in Fig. IS 7. When not tied thus, it 
rested on a forked post set in the ground, 
either in the rear of the tent or in front of 
it. The top of the pole, to which the scalp 
was fastened, projected beyond the forked ^ ^^ 
post. When this post was in the rear of the 
tent, the top of the pole pointed towards 
the tent: but when the post was set up in 
front, the pole pointed in the direction to 
be traveled. The place for the pole in good / 
weather was determined by its keeper. - — 

The people feared the pole, and they would ^^^- isr.— Sacred tent m which the 
not dare to tread on the tent or its tent- ^ ^^ ^^^' 

I)oles. Should a horse tread on a tent-pole of this tent, its legs were 
sure to be broken subsequently. George Miller knew of two horses 
that did this, and their legs were broken when the people were sur- 
rounding a herd of buffalo, 

Frank La Fleche has told the author about some sacred stone 
arrows which were used for jmrposes of divination. Hence, the nikie 
name. Ma" peji. Bad Arrow, i. e. Good Arrow, a i>ersonal name of 
the Haiiga gens. Other objects, which may have been fetiches, have 
been named in § 56. In addition to all which have been mentioned 
must be named the wa^ixabe or mysterious bags. WhUe these are not 
governmental instrumentalities, they are ''waqube'* mysterious things. 



>S«6 Om. Soc., in 3d. An. Bept. Bar. Eths.. p. 2S5. 



414 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

aud on certain occasions they are addressed as "grandfiithers." There 
used to be five of these bags among the Omaha, but only three are now 
in existence. Those which could be carried in time of war were made 
of the skins and feathers of the gfeda" or pigeon hawk, the i"be-jarika 
or fork-tailed hawk, and the nickucku or swallow.^ 

j^ade ufefe, according to Big Elk (but denied by Joseph La Fleche 
and Two Crows) is the mystic rite performed by the principal captain 
when near the camp of the enemy. It is thus described by Big Elk 
(See § 02) : 

"Four times ho untied the bag which he had made sacred. He caused the wind 
to waft the odor of the medicine toward the k)dges. When the medicine arrived 
there, it made the Pawnees forget their warlike temper; it made them forget their 
weapons."* 

That there was some foundation for this statement, compare what is 
said in Omaha Sociology, p. 321 : 

"When the principal captains wish to open their sacred bags, they assemble their 
followers in a circle, making them sit down. Any of the followers or servants may 
be ordered to make an "uje':^i" in the center of the circle by pulling up the grass, 
then making a hole in the ground (the " U-ma-ne of Miss Fletcher ^). Then the sacred 
bags are laid at the feet of the principal captains, each one of whom opens his own 
bag (i. e. the one borrowed by him from its keeper)," holding the mouth of the bird 
toward the foe, even when some of the warriors are going to steal horses." 

During the ordeal of the "wastegistu," as the Omaha call it, the suc- 
cessful warriors were called up, one by one, and as each man stood over 
one of the sacred bags, he addressed the bag itself thus : 
"Hau', i°c'a'ge-ha, eda'da" uwi'bcfsa ta miiike fa"'ja, ifausi'cta"-ma'ji 

Ho ! old man ! what I will tell you though I tell a I not 

lie 

uwi'b(^a ta' minke," i. e., "Ho, venerable man! though I will tell you 

I will tell you 

something, I will not lie when I tell it to you." As he spoke he let a 
small stick drop on the bag. It was supposed that if the stick rested 
on the bag instead of rolling off, the man had told the truth (Om. Soc, 
p. 328). 

§ 60. Osage tribal fetiches. — The corresponding Osage custom has been 
described by the author : ^ The old men assembled at the war tent. 
The sacred bags were brought into the tent to test the warriors, who 
were watched very closely by the old men. All the old men who had 
been distinguished in war were painted with the decorations of their 
respective geiites. * * * Each warrior had four sticks about 6 
inches long, and he was required to lay them in succession on the sa- 
cred bag. The warriors were taken in the following order: First, the 
captain, next the lieutenants, then the heralds, after whom came the 
maii who had struck the first blow, then he who gave the second blow, 
and so on. As each captain laid his first stick on the bag he said, 
"Ho, O grandfather! I lay this down on you because I am the one 



' See Om. Soc, p. 320. ^ Rept. Peabody Museum, Vol. ni, p. 263, note 8. 

'Contr. N. A. Ethn., Vol. vi, p. 404. * In the Am. Naturalist, Feb., 1884, pp. 128, 129. 



ooKSEY.] PERSONAL FETICHES. 415 

who has killed a man." On laying down the second stick, he said, 
"Ho, O grandtather! I wish to be fortunate in stealing horses! 1 wish 
our children, too, to be as fortunate as we have been!" Wlieu he put 
down the third, he said, " Ho, O grandfather ! I wish to raise a domestic 
animal. I wish to succeed in bringing it to maturity." By this he 
meant a son. The prayer made when the last stick was laid down was 
as follows: "Ho, O grandfather! May we continue a people witliout 
sustaining any injuries!" Similar petitions were made by the lieuten- 
ants and heralds. He who gave the first blow said, as he laid down 
the first stick, "Ho, O grandfather! I lay this down on you as one who 
has caused another to stun a foe ! " The rest of his petitions were those 
made by the captains. He who struck the second blow said as follows, 
on laying down the first stick : " Ho, O grandfather ! I place this on you 
because I was the next one to strike and stun a man ! " The other 
l)etitions follow, as given above. The first petition of each of the re- 
maining warriors is as follows: "Ho, () grandfather! I lay this on you 
as a token that I have aided in overcoming the enemy." 

§G1. Kama tribal J'etivhes. — Among the Kansa, the followhig fetiches 
belong to the two Haiiga geutes: The war j)ipe and the war clam shell. 
The war pipe was kept in 1882 by raha"le-wak'ii, the son of Ali"ka- 
wahu, for the t^vo Hafiga gentes. This j^ipe has an eye on each side, so 
that it may see the enemy! There is no i)ipestem, but there is one 
hole to which the mouth is applied, and in the bowl is another h(jle in 
which the tobacco is placed. The pipe, which is all in one piece, is of 
catlinite, about as thick as two hands. It is never taken from the wrap, 
pings, except when all the men of the two Hahga gentes assemble at 
the lodge of the chief Ali"kawahu. The sacred clam shell was kept in 
1882 by Paha"le-ga(|li, the chief of the other Ilanga gens. It is wrapped 
in five coverings, similar to those around the war pijie. They are as 
follows: (1.) The innermost covering, the bladder of a bufl'alo bull; 
(2) next covering, made of the spotted fur of a fawn; (3) made of 
braided rushes or "sa;" (4) a very broad piece of deerskin; (5) the out- 
ermost covering, made of braided hair from the head of a buffalo bull. 

PERSONAL FETICUES. 

§ 62. ja<|'i'^-na"paji said that there were some Omaha who considered 
as "waqube" the skins of animals and the skins and feathers of birds 
used in making their " wai^dxabe" or mystery bags. Among these birds 
and animals he named the eagle, sparrow hawk, yellow-backed hawk, 
green necked duck, great owl, swallow, otter, flying squirrel, mink, 
mi^[a ska ("white raccoon" sic), and maza"he. The last is an animal 
resembling an otter. It is covered with thick black and reddish-yellow 
hair, and its tail is bushy. Samuel Fremont said (in 1889) that this 
animal was not found in that part of Nebraska where the Omaha dwelt, 
but that he had heard of its being found among the Dakota. Two 
Crows and Joseph La Fleche never heard of the mijja ska and maza"he 



416 A HTUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

among their own people; but they said that when the Omaha traveled, 
some used to take with tlieni their respective "maka"" or medicines, 
evidently their personal fetiches, for they used to say, "Our medicines 
are wise; they cau talk like men, and they tell us how many horses we 
are to receive from the people to whom we are going." 

When the Omaha went against the Pawnee during the boyhood of 
the present Big Elk, one of the captains, named Gi*a"habi, had a war 
club of the kind called " weaqfade." He made this club " waqube," in 
order to use it mysteriously. When near the cami^ of the enemy he 
brandished the club four times toward the Pawnees. This was fol- 
lowed by the use of the sacred bag, as related in § 59. 

It is probable that the medicines of the Watci Wafupi, Wase-jide 
afi°-ma, and the ja(|;i°-wasabe watcigaxe ikageki^e, of the Omaha,' the 
Ked Medicine of the Kansa, and the Red Medicine of the Osage 
Maka" .>ii^se watsi" or Ked Medicine Dance, were used as fetiches, as 
they conferred wonderful powers on those who used them. When the 
author was at the Omaha Agency, in 1878, he obtained the following : 
llocky Mountain beans, which are scarlet, and are called "Maka" jide" 
or Red Medicine, confer good luck on their owners. If the beans like 
their owners, they will never be lost; even if dropped accidentally, 
they wdl return to the possession of their owners. Ni-k'u-mi, an aged 
Oto woman, told one of her granddaughters (then Susette La Fleche, 
known as Bright Eyes after 1879, and now the wife of T. H. Tibbies) 
of her own experience with one of these beans. She had dropped it 
in the grass, but she found it on retracing her steps. It is impossible 
to say whether this scarlet bean was identical with the Red Medicine 
of the Iowa (§ 87), Kansa, and Osage; but it certainly differed from 
that of the Wase-jide afi" ma of the Omaha. 

There are sacred or mystery rites practiced by the dancing societies, 
including those to which the wazefe or doctors belong. Two Crows 
said that he did not know those of his society, the j^e i^'-a'efe-ma. As 
initiation into one of these societies is very exi)ensive, it is unreasona- 
ble to suppose that Two Crows would communicate the secrets of his 
order for a small sum, such as $1 a day. 

SORCERY. 

§ 63. There have been sorcerers, i. e., such as prepared love potions for 
those who bought them, and who were thought to cause the death of 
those persons who had incurred their displeasure. The author has been 
told that the sorcerers give a high price for a small quantity of the 
catamenial discharge of a virgin. It is mixed with a love potion, and 
when the compound is administered to a man he can not help courting 
the woman, even when he knows that he does not love her. 

' See Om. Soc, pp. 349-351. 



DOKSEY JUGGLERY. 417 

JUGGLERY. 

§ 64. Ickade or sleight of baud exists not only in the secret societies 
but also along with the iiractice of medicine, government, and religion. 
Some of the Omaha and Pouka doctors of the first class (the wazefe, 
not the maka" af.i"-ma or root (h)ct()rs) pretend to draw sticks from the 
bodies of tlieir patients, or worms from aching teeth, saying that those 
things are the causes of the diseases. Every disease is a "nie"or 
''pain," and there must be a cause for that pain. 

§ 05. In 1872 Big Grizzly Bear, a subordinate Ponka chief, told the 
following to the author: ''One day Whip, a head chief, said, 'I am 
going to make the sun blue.' And he did so. Then he said, 'I am 
going to pull out some of the hair of the man in the moon.' He held 
up his hands to show that they had no hair in them. Then he began 
to sing. Suddenly he had some bloody hair in each hand. Ga-:;i-de 
ma"-</'i" and a great many others were witnesses. Once, when the Ponka 
were destitute of food, Buffalo Bull, the father of Grizzly Bear's Ear, 
said, 'I will use magic' His wife replied, 'Please do so.' So he made 
a pile of earth about 2 feet high and shot four arrows into it. A large 
deer was slain, furnisiiing them with plenty to eat." 

In 1871 the author saw an exhibition of the skill of Cramped Hand 
and Bent Horn, two Ponka shamans. One afternoon, near sunset, abont 
two hundred persons, mostly Indians, stood in a large circle around a 
tent in which sat the shamans and their assistants. Presently the 
shamans and the aged chief, Antoine Primeau, came out of the tent 
and stood within the circle. One of the shamans. Cramped Hand, 
danced along the inner side of the circle, exhibiting a revolver (Allen's 
patent), one chamber of which he seemed to load as the people looked 
on. After he had put on the cap, he handed the wea]>on to the chief, 
who fired at the shaman. Cramped Hand fell immediately, as if badly 
wounded. Bent Horn rushed to his relief and began to manipulate 
him. It was not long before Cramped Hand was able to crawl around 
on his hands and knees, thcmgli the bullet had apparently hit him in 
the mouth. He groaned and coughed incessantly, and after a tin basin 
was put down before him he coughed up a bullet which fell in the ba- 
sin, and was shown in triumph to the crowd. This is told merely to 
show how the Indian juggler has adopted some of the tricks of his 
white brother. In a few moments Bent Horn danced around, showing 
to each of us an object which appeared to be a stone as large as a man's 
fist, and too large to be forced into the mouth of the average man. 
Cramped Hand stood about 10 or 15 feet away and threw this stone 
toward Bent Horn, hitting the latter in the mouth and disappear! itg. 
Bent Horn fell and appeared in great i^ain, groaning and foaming at 
the mouth. When the basin was jjut down before him, there fell into 
it, not one large stone, but at least four small ones. We were told that 
the chief, Antoine, had to give a horse for the privilege of shooting at 
the shaman. 

11 ETII 27 



418 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

It is i»rob;ibl(' tliat some of the Omaha shamans performed simiLir 
tricks, though the author has been unable to obtain any accounts of 
them. 

§ 60. He Avas fortunate, however, in making the acquaintance of the 
chief " wakaudagi," or shaman of the Kansa, when at Kaw Agency, 
in the winter of 1881i. This man, Mxlidje-yifige, was very communi- 
cative. He said that there used to be ten shamans in the tribe, and 
all had round pebbles which they blew from their mouths against the 
persons whom they '' j^ilvi^xe" or ''shot in a mysterious manner." 
The arrow of the shamans was called " Mi-pa-ha," which is a name of 
the Buffalo gens. This missile was made of j^art of the red-breasted 
turtle. 

A woman named Sa°-si-le had two "maka°" (medicines, fetiches'?) 
which she used for "ickade" or "wakandagi wagaxe" (magic, sha- 
manistic legerdemain). She could swallow a knife; and when she 
swallowed a certain kind of grass she drew a green snake from her 
mouth. John Kickapoo's father had a red medicine, w^hich was used 
for women who desired to l)ecome enciente, for horses, and for causing 
good dreams. Nixiidje-yinge's mother, who was a shaman, has a small 
pebble and a clam shell, which she used in her mystery acts. 

Pagani had a "sika-hyuka" or "needle" (so represented by Ni- 
xiidje-yinge, but it may not have been a steel needle), which he swal- 
lowed and voided through the urethra. Gahige-wadayinga used to 
stab himself with a "mahi"sii" or arrow-point, about 6 inches long, 
causing the blood to spurt from his left shoulder as he danced. The 
other shamans used to spurt water on his back from their mouths, 
while he held his arms horizontally from his body, Avith the forearms 
pointing upward. When they finished no wound could be found. One 
shaman had a fish called "hu blaska" or flat fish, to AA^hich he talked 
He made a necklace of the skin, and he used it for " 5[ilu"xe." 

Wakanda-zi had the skin of a small black bear as his sacred bag. 
As he danced he held it by the tail and shook the skin. After shoot- 
ing the round pebble from his mouth at a person he thrust the bear, 
skin at the Avounded man, drawing it back very quickly. The round 
pebble Avas draAvn into the mouth of the bear and dropped on the 
ground Avhen the skin bag was held witli the tail up. 

He who Avished to be shot at handed a gun to some one, who shot 
him in the side, much blood escaping. He seemed to be dead; but the 
shamans assembled and maniimlated him. One put the mouth of the 
otter (of the otterskin sacred bag) to the mouth of the patient in order 
to perform the act called "liipayi"" (to raise up or resuscitate his OAvn). 
Then, "Zii'be aka eyaii tuhnail'ge aka," i. e., when the bag was drawn 
aAViiy I'apidly, the otter made the sound " ziibe," as Avhen one draws 
in the ])reath, and the bullet Avas in its mouth. On the patient's re- 
covery he gave a horse to the man who shot at him. 

Mange zi had a clam shell and a snake that he used in his sleight-of- 



noHSEY] OMAHA AND PONKA BELIEF AS TO A FUTURE LIFE. 410 

luiud acts. He also swallowed ''malii°-tn," a kind of «>Teeji giass about a 
foot long- aud as thick as a pencil. Before swallowiui;- tliis, he waiiued 
it at a fire. He rubbed liimself on liis chest after swallowing it, saying, 
" Let all look at me !" Then he called to him a man t( > act as his assistant. 
He coughed and in the assistant's haiul there was a snake, which he 
took around the circle of spectators, showing it to every one, tliough 
no one handled it. On his returning the snake to Mange-zi, the latter 
swallowed it and coughed up the long grass. 

Mxildje-yinge said that there were eight objects used by tlie sha- 
mans for " shooting," the needle; Hint ( !) arrow head; beaver teeth; tlie 
half of a knife blade, i. e., that i)art next to the point; the lish-fan, 
made of ''huqtci" or "real fish;" the red medicine; the hiyadadiixe or 
medicine bag that was caused to liy; and the tuhnange, or otter skin 
bag. (See §§ 20l>-21)5, 307.) 

OMAHA AND PONKA BELIEF AS TO A FUTURE LIFE. 

§ (M. They have a very (aude belief. Each person is taught to have a 
wanaxe or spirit, which does not perish at death. According to Joseph 
La Fleche and Two Crows, the old men used to say to the people, 
"(|'iuda" >{i, wanaxe uda°-ma;a ci tate. (|(lipiaji j[\, wanaxe ])iiiji-iiia:;a 
ci tate, " i. e., '' If you are good, you will go to the good ghosts. If you 
are bad, you will go to the bad ghosts. Nothing was ever said of go- 
ing to dwell with Wakanda, or with demons.^ 

Rev. William Hamilton found a belief that retribution is in this life, 
and he says, "Their notions are exceedingly crude." 

§ 68. Frank La Fleche told the author before 1SS2 that he had heard 
some old men relate a tradition that years ago a man came back to 
life and told about the spirit land. He said that for four nights after 
death the ghost had to travel a very dark road, but that after he 
reached the Milky Way there was plenty of light. For this reason, 
said he, the people ought to aid their deceased friends by lighting fires 
at the graves, and by keeping them burning for four nights in each 
case. After going along the Milky Way, the ghost came at last to a 
place where the road fcu'ked; aud there sat an aged man, clothed in a 
buffalo robe with the hair outside. (See § 359.J.) He said nothing, but 
])ointed to each inipiirer the road for which he asked. One road was 
a very short one, and he who followed it soon came to the place where 
the good ghosts dwelt. The other road was an endless one, ah)ng 
which the ghosts went crying. The spirits of suicides could not travel 
either road; but they hovered over their graves. But Joseph La 
Fleche and Two Crows (in 1882) said thtit the road of the ghosts was 
not the Milky Way, and they regarded the account of the endless road 
as a modern addition, Avhich is very piobable. The latest statements 

'Compare the Oregon .story: Xo liidiiiu.s jio iillcr ilcatli to (lie n])i)iT world lo dwell witli (,)awaiic(a. 
Am. Antliropolofiist, Jan., 1889, p. 60. 



420 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

of Frank La Fleche arc given in the Jonr. Amer. Folk-Lore, vol. ii, 'No. 

4,1)].. 10,11: 

There are a variety of beliefs concerning the immediate action of the spirit upon 
it.s withdrawal from the body. Some think that the soul at once starts upon its 
journey to the spirit laud; others, th;it it hovers about the grave as if reluctant to 
depart. Because of this latter belief, food and water are placed at the head of the 
grave for several days after the burial. The spirit is supposed to partake of this 
food. No Indian would touch any article of food thus exposed; if he did, the ghovst 
would snatch away the food aud paralyze the mouth of the thief, and twist his face 
out of shape for the rest of his life; or else he would be pursued by the ghost, and 
food would lose its taste, and hunger ever after haunt the ofl'ender. There is a be- 
lief in the tribe that before the s])irits linally depart from men who died of wounds 
or their results, they float toward a cliff overhanging the Missouri, not far from the 
present Sautee Agency, in Nebraska, and cut ui)OU the rocks a picture showing forth 
their manner of death. A line in the picture indicates the spot w^here the disease 
or wound was located which caused the death. After this record is complete, the 
8i)irit flies off to the land of the hereafter. It is said that these pictures are easily 
recognized by the relatives and friends of the deceased. This place is known as 
lri-g(ta"'-xe 5[io^iI-xai eta",' or, Where the spirits make pictures of themselves. A 
suicide ceases to exist; for him there is no hereafter. A man struck by lightning is 
buried where he fell, and in the jiosition in which he died. His grave is tilled with 
earth, and no mound is raised over one who is thus taken from life. 

In 1873 .some of the Ponka said they had the folh)win<;- beliefs con- 
cerning a murderer: (1) The ghosts surround him and keep up a con- 
stant whistling; (2) he can never satisfy his hunger, though he eat 
much food; (3) he must not be allowed to roam at large lest high 
wiiuls arise. 

It is important to compare this whole section with the Dakota beliefs 
found in §§ 2(!0-278. 

TIu' author was told by the Omaha that when a man was killed by 
lightning, he ought to be buried face downwards, and the soles of his 
feet had to be slit. When this was done, the spirit went at once to the 
spirit land, without giving further trouble to the living. In one case 
(that of a Weji"cte.man, Jadegi, according to George Miller and Frank 
Le Fleclie)- this was not done, so it was said that the ghost tcall-ed, 
and he did not rest in peace till another person (his brother) was slain 
by lightning and laid beside him. 

When Jose])h La Fleche and Two Crows heard what Frank had told 
about the Milky Way, etc., they remarked, "We have never been to the 
spirit land, so we can not tell what is done there. Xo one has ever 
come back and told us." All that they had ever heard was the old 
story about the forked road. 

§ 0J>. Gahige, the late chief of the Inke-sabe (a buttalo gens), told the 
author about the address made to a member of his gens, when dying. 
According to him, the person was addressed thus : "You are going to the 
animals (the buflalos). You are going to your ancestors. Anita du- 
baha line (which may be rendered, You are going to the four living ones, 

' This name is jjiven in tlio notation of the Bureau of Ethnology, not as published by Mr. LaFleche. 
'See Jour. Am. Folklore, Vol. u. Xo. 6. p. 190. 



rx,K>,Ey ! KANSA BELIEFS kESPECTING DEATH, ETC. 421 

if not, the four winrj^ . VVackafi'-gi (Be .strong)." Gahige was under- 
stood to speak of four spirits or .sools to eaeh person, but Joseph La 
Fl<iche and Two Crows said that the Omaha did not believe that a j>er- 
son had more than one spirit. Two Crows gave the following as the ad- 
dress to a d\iijg irieniber of his gens, the Hanga, another baffalo gens: 
"Wani;a ttkpi" fati. Ga"^ eja f agte tate ha. Ga'^ dadufagaqeaji te 

Quadraped frcdn you And thith- y<m go shall . Aiid tou do not £a<:*: ' wi.. 

come 

hii'. Hne t<^'ja ca-^'ca^' ma^in'-ga ha," i. e., " You came hither from the 

you go to the alwa.j- wait thon : 

animals. And you are going back thither. Do not face this way again. 
When you go. cortinue walking." The last sentence is a petition to the 
departing spirit not to return to this earth to worrj- or injure the surviv- 
ors. That the dead are referred to as still existing, and as having some 
knowledge of what is happening here, maybe seen from the address to 
a Ponka chief at his installation: --(^'iadi gahi, fiji^'fe gahi, fi:^iga° 
gahi, amustaqti dda-^'be ma'^fi" tai;" L e.. '-Your father was a chief, 
your elder brother fi. e., his iKjtential elder brother. Ubiska. a former 
head chief of the Ponkaj was a chietl and your grand&ther was a 
chief: may they continue to look directly down on you I " ' 

§ 70. Those who boil sacred food, as for the warpath, pour some of 
the soup outside the lodge, as an offering to the ghosts, f^ Omaha cus- 
tom.) 

There has been no belief in the resurrection of the Ixxly. but simply 
one in the continued existence of the ghost or spirit. WhOe some of the 
lowHs expressed to Mr. Hamilton a belief in the transmigration of spirits, 
that doctrine has not been found among the Omaha and Ponka. nor 
has the author heard of it among other Siouan tribes. 

Xot all ghosts are visible to the living. They may be heard without 
being seen. One Omaha woman, the mother of Two Crows, told how she 
had been in a lodge with many persons, who were in\isible from the 
knees upward.- 

KANSA BELIEFS EESPECTDfG DEATH A>'D A FrTTTRE LIFE. 

§ 71. When the author was at Kaw Agency. Indian Territory, in the 
winter of 1SS2-'S3. a man named Ho-sa-sa-ge died. After the represen- 
tatives of all the gentes had assembled at the house, Wakauda ( named 
after the Thimder-l>emg), the father-in-law of the deceased, removed the 
lock of hail' called the "ghost," and tojk it to his own house, weeping as 
he departed. 

When Mr. Say was among the Kansa - he obtained the following in- 
formation about their beliefs concerning death and the future life: 

Wht-n a man is killed in battle the thunder is supposed to tak they do 



>Om. Soc.. p. 360. 

*See "Death and Ftllc:— _:: . _• ; :_; " .■-'-:« " by Francis L-i. 
Vol. II. Xo. 4. pp. 4. 5. 
'See James's Accoant £xped. to Bocky Mountains, Vol. i- p. 1^. 



422 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 

not know wbirlicr. lu going to battle each warrior traces an imaginary tigare of 
the thunder on the soil; he who represents it incorrectly is killed by the thunder. 
A person saw this thunder one day on the ground, with a beautiful moccasin on each 
side of it. Having need of a pair, he took them and went his way ; but on his return 
to the same spot the thunder took him otf. and he has not since been heard of. 

They seem to have vague notions about the future state. They think that a brave 
man or a good hunter will walk in a good path; but a bad man and a coward will 
find a bad path. Thinking that the deceased has far to travel, they bury with his 
body moccasins, some articles of food, etc., to support him on the journey. Many 
per.sons, they believe, who have revived have been, during their apparent death, to 
strange villages, where they were not treated well by the i>eople, so they returned 
to life. 

The author, when among the Kansa, in the vrinter of 1882-'83, learned 
the following-, which differs from anything he has ever obtained else- 
where: ''The Kansa believe that when there is a death the ghost re- 
turns to the spirit village nearest the present habitat of the living. 
That is to say. all Indians do not go to one spirit village or ' happy 
hunting gTound,' but to different ones, as there is a series of spirit vil- 
lages for the Kansa, beginning with tlie one at Council Grove, where 
the tribe dwelt before tliey removed to their present reservation in In- 
dian Territory, and extending along both sides of the Kansas Eiver to 
its mouth, thence up the Missouri Eiver, as far as the tribe wandered 
before meeting the Cheyennes (near the State line), tlience down the 
river to the mouth of Osage River, and so on, down to the mouths of the 
Missouri and Ohio rivers," etc. 



CHAPTER IV. 
XDIWERE AND WINNEBAGO CULTS. 

§ 72. Tlie Rev. William Hamiltoa. who was a missionary to the lorv i 
and Sac Indians of Nebraska, firom 1S37 to 1S53. is the authority tor m. -- 
of the Iowa material in this chapter. About the year 1S4S, he pa:> 
lished a series of letters about the Iowa Indians in a Presbyterian 
weekly newspa^ier. and with his permission the present writer tran- 
scribed these letters in 1S79. for his own future use. 

Other intbrmation about the three X'ji^^f'? tribes t Iowa. iHo and Mis- 
souri) was obtaineil by the author fix)m Ke-:^re.)e, an Oto: Ckajainye, 
a ^lissouri: and the delegation of Iowa chiefs that visited Washinartou 
in 18Si\ 

The principal Winnebago authority was; James Alexander, a iidl- 
blood and a member of the Wolf gens. 

TEKM "-GKEAr SFIKIT~ >~EVEK HEAKP A3IONG THE lOWA. 

Mr. Hamilton wrote thus in one of his letters: 

It is ofteu said that th«^ Indians are nor idolaters, and that they Where ia oae 
Supreme B^ing. whom they call the Great Spirit. I do not uo-w recollect that levrr 
heard the lowas use the term Great Spirit since 1 have beeu aouou^ them. Tkev 
speak of God ^^Wakanta). aud sometimeis of the Great God or Bad God. But of thr 
true ch;vracter of God they are entirely iijcuonuit. M;iiiy of then. - " ■ • . 
creator of all thing?>. and use a term that siguides "Creator o: 
times they call him ••Grandfather" vhi^Truka . But the\ 

sensed of like passions with themselve*. and plea.seil wit" - - 

dances, thetts. and such like sin ♦ ' * They sor. - ~ - 

gvHl. because it gives light and heat. The m«.H»n they - - ~ - _ 

because it seems to be to the night what the sua is : i a,sked an Indian 

the other day how ui.mv ijv'ds the Iowa* had. ai'd he - ctuied. •Seven." 

IHK Sr>" A WAKAMA. 

« 7:>. An Iowa told Mr. Hamilton that he had once killetl a bear, which 
lie offeretl to the sun. allowing the animal to lie where he had killeil it, 

VELY. WINDS AS WAKAMAS. 

§74. An Iowa told Mr. Hamilton that Tatce, or Wind, was one of the 
seven great gmls ot his tribe. Another told liim that he had made 
otteriug-s to the Si>nth Wind, who was cmisidered a beneficent Wakauta. 
But the Xorth-east Wind was a maleticent one. 

.hidging ftom st>mo of the Winuebago jiersoual names, it is prvduible 
that the winds were regarvletl '> ;Mu,r< by that ^n^vple. 

123 



424 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

THE THUXDEE-BErNCi A WAKANTA. 

§ 75, Among the Iowa and Oto, the Tcexita is the eagle and thunder- 
bird gens, and Mr. Hamilton was told by the Iowa that the Thunder-be- 
ing was called, Tcexita, and Wakanta, the latter being its peculiar title. 
'•They supposed the Thunder-being to be a large bird. When they hrst 
hear the thunder in the spring of the year, they have a sacred feast in 
honor of this god." 

The Winnebago called the Thunder-being "Waka"t€a-ra," and one 
division of the Bird gens is the Waka"tca ikikaratca-da, or Thunder- 
being sub-gens. The Thunder-beings are the enemies of the Waktceqi 
or Submarine Wakantas. One i)erson in the Thunder-being sub-gens 
is named Five-horned Male, probably referring to a Thunder-being 
with five horns! Other personal names are as follows: Green Thun- 
der-being, Black Thunder-being. White Thunder-being, and Yellow 
Thunder-being; but James Alexander, a full-blood Winnebago of the 
Wolf gens, says that these colors have no connection with the four 
winds or quarters of the earth (See § 381). 

The Iowa told Mr. Hamilton of a Winnebago who saw a Thunder- 
being fighting a subaquatic power. Sometimes the former bore the 
latter up into the air, and at other times the subaquatic power took 
his adversary beneath the water. The Winnebago watched them all 
daj', and each Power asked his assistance in overcoming the other, 
promising him a great reward. The man did not know which one to 
help: but at last he shot an arrow at the subaquatic power, who was 
carried up into the air by the Thunder-being, but the wounded one 
said to the man, "You may become a great man yourself, but your 
relations must die.'' And so they say it happened. He became very 
great, l)ut his relatives died. 

When the warriors returned home from an expedition against their 
enemies, they plaited grass and tied the pieces around their arms, 
necks, and ankles. Sometimes to each ankle there was a trailing 
piece of plaited grass a yard long. This was probably associated, as 
were all war customs, with the worship of the Thunder-being (See 
Chap. Ill, § 35). 

SUBTERRA^•EA^' POWERS. 

§ 76. An Indian became deranged from the useof whisky, and ran wild 
for several days. The Iowa supposed that his madness was caused 
by a subterranean power, whom he had seen, and whose picture he 
had drawn on the ground, representing it with large horns. 

SUBAQUATIC POWERS. 

§ 77. Some lowaclaim to have seen them. No Heart (Xatce-nihe) told 
Mr. Hamilton that he had seen a "water god in the Missouri river, 
when a man was drowned. When a person is drowned they some- 



DOR^Fv] ANIMALS AS WAKANTAS. 425 

times say th.it the god who lives in the water has taken him for a serv- 
ant. Not a year since, some Iowa went over the river for meat. A 
young girl sat down in the canoe with her load on her l)ack. When 
near the shore the canoe was upset accidentally, and the girl was 
drowned. The men thought that they heard a god halloo in the water, 
r,nd that he had taken her. One told me that the gods of the air (i. e. 
the Thunder-beings) fought the gods of the water, and when the latter 
came out of the water, the former stole upon them and killed them." 

The subterranean and suba(iuatic powers are called ''waktceqi" by 
the Winnebago, and this tribe has a gens called Waktceqi ikikara- 
tcada. The Winnebago say that the waktceqi dwell under the ground 
and the high bluffs, and in subterranean water, that they are caused 
to uphold the earth, trees, rivers, etc., and that they are the enemies 
of the Thunder-beings (§ 3SG). In the Winnebago Waktceqi gens are 
the following personal names: Black Waktceqi, White Waktceqi, 
Green Waktceqi, "Waktceqi that is sa"" (which may be gray or 
bro^ii), Four Horned Male, Two Horned Male, and Lives in the Hill. 

ANIMALS AS WAKANTA.S. 

§ 78, Mr. Hamilton wrote that the Iowa often spoke about the buffa- 
loes, whom they regarded as gods, addressing them as "Grandfathers." 
He also told of a doctor whom he met one day; the doctor seized a 
joint-snake that was handed him by another doctor, calling it his "god," 
spoke of it as being good medicine, and after putting its head into liis 
mouth, he bit it twice. 

APOTHEOSES. 

§ 79. "They also seem to think that human beings may become gods, 
and in this resi^ect they are like the Mormons." 

DWELLINGS OF GODS. 

§ 80. " High rocks are supposed by the Iowa to be the dwellings of 
gods." "There is a Winnebago tradition that a woman carrying her 
child was running from her enemies, so she Jumped down a steep place 
and was turned into a rock. And now when they pass that place they 
make offerings to her." 

WORSHIP. 

§ 81, "One ot their most common acts of worship, and apparently one 
of dail}' occurrence, is observed when a person is about to smoke liis 
pipe. He looks to the sky and says, ' Wakanta, hei*e is tobacco!' (See 
§§ 29, 40, 'Nini bahai t^.') Then he puffs a mouthfnl of smoke up 
towards the sky, after which he smokes as he pleases." "They also 
make offerings of tobacco by throwing a small quantity into the tire." 



42fi A STUDY OF SIOUAX (Tl/rS. 

''They frequently offer n small i)()rti()ii ol' food at tlieir feasts, before 
tbey begin eating.'' 

Mr. Hamilton saw dogs hung by tbeii' necks to trees or to sticks 
l)lanted in the ground, and he was told that these dogs were offerings. 
''No Heart told ine that when the smallpox raged among them about 
fifty years ago" (i.e. about 179S), "and swept off so many, that they 
made a great many offerings." Said he, " AVe threw away a great many 
garments, blankets, etc., and offered many dogs to God. My father 
threw away a flag which the IJritish had given him. When we had 
thrown away these things, the smallpox left us." These offerings to 
God (literally, to Wakanta) were the means of checking it. " To throw 
away," in Iowa, is the same as "to offer in sacrifice." 

TAB008. 

§ 82. Mr. Hamilton was told by the Iowa that no member of any gens 
could eat the ffesh of the eponymic animal. 

The author gained the following taboos from a Missouri, Cka^oe-yifie 
or Ckapinye, who visited the Omaha in 1879 : The members of the 
Tuna^p'i", a Black Bear gens in the Oto and Nyut'atci (or Missouri) 
tribes can not touch a clam shell. The Momi people, now a subgens of 
the Missouri Bird gens, abstain from small birds which have been killed 
by large birds, and they can not touch the feathers of such small birds. 

PUBLIC OR TRIBAL FETIUHES.' 

§ 83. Among these are the sacred pipes, the sacred bags, or waru- 
xawe, and the sacred stone or iron. The sacred pipes are used only 
on solemn occasions, and they are kept enveloped in the skin wrap- 
pers. The sacred bags, or waruxawe, are made from the skins of ani- 
mals. They are esteemed as mysterious, and they are reverenced as 
much as Wakanta. Among the Winnebago (and presumably among 
the x^i'"'6i"e tribes) no woman is allowed to touch the waruxawe. 
There used to be seven waruxawe among the Iowa, '< related to one 
another as brothers and sisters," and used by war parties. On the re- 
turn from wai- the seven bags were opened and used in the scalp dance. 
They contained the skins of animals and birds with medicine in them, 
also wild tobacco and other war medicine, also the war club. There 
used to be seven war clubs, one for each waruxawe, but during the 
last expedition of the Iowa, prior to the date of Mr. Hamilton's letters, 
the war club and pipes or whistles were lost from the principal bag. 
The next kind of sacred bags, the Waci waruxawe, numbered seven. 
They were the bad-medicine bags, by means of which they professed to 
deprive their enemies of power, when they had discouraged them by 
blowing the whistles. Owing to this enchantment, they said, their 
enemies could neither shoot nor run, and were soon killed. The next 

' See § 58. 



TtHOOt* rHTB vr FETH-HZ"* 

in 'iv^ac bn^ 






wouniiJe^L 



-iKtett 'iTufer 



facit Of i:;Ak£3L x»' ketsp t^v 



•ine *• 



.eitiffl: 



«>c nuiitg- TdiHUL -fv^aar ~ > -rotiu-i 



Ci 



r ^ap i^Sere- "T»*r^ ^mr Ttt- 






^iiiui - 



T!i. 



~3S wtxr* 
ante 



I'll. UUP' 



taieifcr. '.'11 



•i^^C Jixi:-- 

.1 .l3b Jk£i!U> 






428 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

The women dauce with their eyes turned toward the ground and with their hands 
hanging closely in front, palms next to the person. The track left by their feet is 
very pretty, being like a close-leaved vine. It is astonishing to notice how each 
woman can leap into her predecessor's track. Water is partaken of and the entire 
dance is clearly indicative of the prayer for increase and plenty of buffalo. The 
two mounds remind one of larger structures and suggest many speculations, partic- 
ularly when taken in connection with the manner of their building. 

In the great mystery lodge, whence so many of the sacred societies among other 
tribes professedly take their rise and inspiration, the fire is at the east, and is made 
by placing four sticks meeting in the center and the other ends pointing to the four 
points of the compass.' Just at that part of the initiation of the candidate when 
he is to fall dead to the old life, be covered as with a pall, and then be raised to the 
new life, the remains of the four sticks are taken away and the ashes raised in a 
sharp conical mound, again suggesting hints of a peculiar past. 

Upon the bluffs of the Missouri, on a promontory * ' * is a little depression 
cut in the ground, circular in form, with an elongated end at the east. The depression 
is 1 foot in diameter and about 6 inches deep. Placing my compass in the center, 
the long end or entrance was found to be exactly to the east. To the south of this 
sacred spot, for it is cleared and cleaned * * * every year, stood a large cedar 
tree, now partly blown down. This was the sacred tree on which miraculous imper- 
sonation of visions lit; and here the spirits tarried as they passed from one resting 
place to another going over the country. About every 50 miles there is one of these 
strange, supernatural resting places. 

PERSONAL FETICHES. 

§ 85. All mediciues were regarded as mysterious or sacred. The heart 
of a slain enemy was sometimes dried and put in the medicine bag to 
be pulverized and mixed with the other medicines. "One or two days 
before a war jjarty started from the village of the Iowa, the man who 
was to carry the sacred bag hid it while the others busied themselves 
with preparing sacred articles" (probably their personal fetiches). 
"The hunters often brought in deer, after eating which, the warriors - 
painted themselves as they would do if they expected to see an enemy. 
Next, one of their number measured a certain number of steps in front, 
when each man took his place, and knelt down. As soon as the word 
was given, each one pulled away the grass and sticks, moving backwards 
till he came to the poles, when he arose. Then each placed his own 
sacred objects (personal fetiches'?) before him, and began his own song. 
While singing, they opened their sacred objects, asking for good luck. 
They sang one song on opening them (as among the Kansa, see § 30), 
and another while putting them back into their places, a song being 
supposed necessary for every ceremony in which they engaged. In the 
conversations which ensued, they were at liberty to jest, provided they 
avoided common or vulgar terms." 

DANCING SOCIETIES. 

There is very probably some connection between these societies and 
the cults of the tribes now under consideration. (See §§ 43, 62, 111, 113, 
120, et passim.) 

> See ii 33 and 40. 



DOHSEY.] DANCING SOCIETIES. 429 

THE OTTER DAXCIXG SOCIETY. 

§86. The members of this order shot at oue another with their otter- 
skin bags, as has been the custom in the Wacicka dancing society of 
the Omaha (Om. Soc, pp. 345, 34G). Some have said that they waved 
their otter-skin bags around in order to infuse the spirit of the otter 
into a bead in its moutli, and that it was by the spirit of the otter that 
they knocked one another down. Each one who practiced this dance 
professed to keep some small round object in his breast to cough it up 
before or during the dance, and to use it for shooting one of his com- 
panions in the neck. He who was thus shot did in turn cough uj) the 
mysterious object, and at the end of the dance each member swallowed 
his own shell or pebble. 

THE RK1> MJ:1)ICINE DANCING SOCIETY. 

§ 87. The Indians used to obtain in the prairies, towards the Rocky 
Mountains, an object about the size of a bean or small hazelnut and of 
a red color, Mr. Hamilton was told that it grew on bushes, and that 
it was considered to be alive, and they looked on it as a mysterious 
animal. In the red medicine dance the person who makes the medi- 
cine kills the animals by crushing the beans and boiling them in a large 
kettle tilled with water. This drink is designed for or api)roi)riated by 
a few members, and they drink the liquid when it is quite hot. The 
more that they drink the more they desire, and they seem able to drink 
almost any quantity. It produces a kind of intoxication, making tliem 
full of life, as they say, and enabling them to dance a long time. (See 
§62.) 

GREEN CORN OANCE. 

§ 88. This dance did not originate with the Iowa. It is said that the 
Sac tribe obtained it from the Shawnee. It is held after night. Men 
and women dance together, and if any women or men wish to leave 
their consorts they do it at this dance and mate anew, nothing being 
urged against it. 

BUFFALO DANCING (SOCIETY. 

§ 89. The Iowa have the buffalo dance, and by a comparison of Mr. 
Hamilton's description of it, and his account of the buffalo doctors, and of 
the medicine or mystery bag of buffiilo hide, with what has been learned 
about the Omaha order of buffalo shamans (see § 43), it seems probable 
that among the Iowa this dance was not participated in by any but those 
who had had visions of the buffalo, and that there was also some con- 
nection between all three — the dancing society, the buffalo doctors, and 
the mysterious bag of buffalo hide. As among the Omaha, the buffalo 
doctors of the Iowa are the only surgeons. 



430 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

XOIWERE TRADITIONS. 

§ 00. The j^oiwere tribes have traditions of their origin similar to 
those found among- the Osage, Kansa, and Ponka, and these traditions 
are considered as " waqonjdta"," or mysterious things, not to be spoken 
of lightly or told on ordinary occasions. 

As among the Osage and Kansa, the traditions tell of a period when 
the ancestors of the present gentes dwelt, some in the upper world, 
and others in the ground (or in the world beneath this one). 

Mr. Hamilton's informant said, "These are sacred things, and I do 
not like to speak about them, as it is not our custom to do so except 
when we make a feast and collect the people and use the sacred pipe." 
These traditions were preserved in the secret societies of the tribes. 
They explain the origin of the gentes and subgentes, of lire, corn, the 
pipes, bows and arrows, etc. 

It is probable that similar secret societies exist among the Winne- 
bago. James Alexander, a Winnebago of the W^olf gens, t(jld a part 
of the secret tradition of his gens, in which appear some resemblances 
to the j^oiwere traditions, such as the creation of four kinds of wolves, 
and their dwelling underground, or in the world beneatli this one. 
(See §§ 381, 383.) 

15ELIEF IN FUTURE LIFE. 

That the j^oiwere believed in the existence of the ghost or spirit 
after death is evident from what Mr. Hamilton observed : 

They often put provisions, a i)itclier of water, and some cooking utensils on the 
grave for the use of the spirit for some time after buriaL *' * *' At the time of 
burial, they often put new clothing and ornaments on the corpse, if they are able, 
and place by its side such things as they think necessary. I once saw a little child 
with some of its playthings Avhich its mother had placed 1)y it, in her ignorance, 
thinking that they would be pleasing to it. - - * They are generally careful for 
a year or so, to keep down all the weeds and grass about the grave, perhajis for 10 
feet around. 



CHAPTER V. 

DAKOTA AND ASSINIBOIN CULTS. 
ALLEGED DAKOTA BELIEF IN A GREAT SPIRIT. 

§ d'2. That the Dakota tribes, before the advent of the white race, 
believed in one Great Spirit, has been asserted by several writers; but 
it can not be proved. On the contrary, even those writers who are 
quoted in this study as stating the Dakota belief in a Great vSpirit, 
also tell us of beliefs in many spirits of evil. Among the earlier writ- 
ers of this class is Say, who observes : 

Their Wahconcla seems to be a protean god; he is sui)i)ose(l to appear to ditiereut 
persons nnder different Corras. All who are favored with his presence become medi- 
cine men and magicians in conseqnence of their havinj;- seen and c(mversed with 
Wahc()nda,and of having received from him some particular medicine of wondrous 
efficacy. 

The same writer records that " Wahconda" appeared sometimes as 
a grizzly bear, sometimes as a bison, at others as a beaver, or an owl, 
or some other bird or animal.' It is plain that Say mistook the generic 
term, " Wahcouda," for a specitic one. (See §§ 6, 21-24.) 

Shea says : 

Although polytheism did not exist, although they all recognized one Supreme 
Being, the creator of all, * ^^ » they nowhere adored the God whom they knew. 
* * * The demons with which they peopled nature, these alone, in their fear they 
sought to appease. * * " Pure unmixed devil-worship prevailed throughout the 
length and breadth of the laud.^ 

§ 93. Lynd made some very pertinent remarks: 

A stranger coming among the Dakotas for the first time, and observing the endless 
variety of objects upon which they bestow their devotion, and the manifold forme 
which that worship assumes, at once pronounces them pantheists. A further ac- 
quaintance with them convinces him that they are pantheists of no ordinary kind — 
that their pantheism is negative as well as positive, and that the engraftments of 
religion are even nu)re numerous than the true branches. Upon a superficial glance 
he seesnanght but an inextricable maze of gods, demons, spirits, beliefs and counter- 
beliefs, earnest devotion and reckless skepticism, prayers, sacrifices, and sneers, 
winding and intermingling with one another, until a labyrinth of pantlieism and 
skepticism results, and the Dakota, with all his infinity of deities api)ear8 a creature 
of irreligion. One speaks of the nu?dicine dance with respect, while another smiles 
at the name— one makes a religion of the raw fish feast, while another stands by and 
laughs at his performance— and others, listening to the supposed revelations of the 



'Say, in .Tami^ss .\ccouiit of Lony's Expoil. Kocky ^tts., \'<il. i, 26H. 
^Sliea, Aiuer. Catli.mis8iou8, i> 25. 

131 



432 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

circle dance, with reverent attentiou, are sueered at bv a class who deny hi tofo the 
ivalan nature of that ceremony.' 

In common with all nations of the earth the Dakotas Ijelieve in a Wakautanka or 
Great Spirit. But this Being is not alone in the universe. Numbers of minor deities 
are scattered throughout space, some of whom are placed high in the scale of power. 
Their ideas of the Great Spirit appear to he that He is the creator of the world and 
has existed from all time; but after creating the world and all that is in it He sank 
into silence and since then has failed to take any interest in the affairs of this 
planet. They never pray to Him, for they deem Him too far away to hear them, or 
as not being concerned in their affairs. No sacrifices are made to Him, nor dances 
in His honor. Of all the spirits He is the Great Spirit; but His power is only latent 
or negative. They swear by Him at all times, but more commonly by other diviui- 
ties.'^ 

Yet Lyud is not always consistent, for lie says on another page (71) 
of the same work: " No one deity is held by them all as a superior object 
of worship." 

§ 94. Pond writes : 

Evidence is also Avanting to show that the Dakotas embraced in their religious 
tenents the idea of one supreme existence, whose existence is expressed by the term 
Great Spirit. If some clans afc the present time entertain thi.s idea it seems highly 
probable that it has been imparted to them by individuals of European extraction. 
No reference to such a being is found in their feasts, fasts, or sacrilices. Or if there 
is such a reference at the present time it is clear that it is of recent origin and does 
not belong to their system. It is indeed true that the Dakotas do sometimes appeal 
to the Great Spirit when in council with white men, but it is because they them- 
selves have embraced the Christian doctrines. Still, it is generally the interpreter 
who makes the appeal to the Great Spirit, when the Indian speaker really appealed 
to the Taku Wakan, and not to the "Wakantanka. It is true that * * * all the 
Dakota gods * * * are mortal. They are not thought of as being eternal, except 
it may be by succession.'^ 

The author agrees with Pond in what he says about the average 
Indian interpreter of early days, who seldom gave a correct rendering 
of what was spoken in council. But at the present time great improve- 
ment has doubtless been observed. 

It should be remembered that Messrs. Riggs and Pond were mission- 
aries to the Dakotas, while Messrs. Say, Shea, and Lynd must be 
classed among the laity. Yet the missionaries, not the laymen, are the 
ones who make the positive statements about the absence of a belief 
in one Great Spirit. 

RIGGS ON THE TAKT^ WAKAN. 

§ 95. Riggs remarks : 

The religious faith of the Dakota is not in his gods as such. It is an intangible, 
mysterious something of which they are only the embodiment, and that in such a 
measure and degree as may accord with the individual fancy of the worshiper. 
Each one will worship some of these divinities and neglect and despise others; but 
the great object of all their worship, whatever its chosen medium, is the ta-koo 



'Lynd, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. ii, pt. 2, p. 63. Conii)are these seeming contradictious with those 
observed among the Omaha and Ponka, especially §§ 21-24. 
•■'Ibid, pp. 64-fo. 
3Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. il, pt. 3, p. 34. 



D' KSEY.] MEANING OF '' WAKAN." 433 

WAH-KON, which is the superuatural and mysterious. No one term can express the 
full meaning of the Dakota's Wakau. It comprehends all mystery, secret power, 
and divinity. * * * ^11 life is Wakan. So also is everything which exhibits 
power, whether in action, as the winds and drifting clouds, or in passive endurance, 
as the bowlder by the wayside.' 

MEANING OF " WAKAN." 

In the mind of a Dakota * * * this word Wah-kon (we write, wa-kan) covers 
the whole field of their iear and worship. Many things also that are neither feared 
nor worshiped, but are simply wonderful, come under this designation. It is related 
of Hennepin that when he and his two companions were taken captive by a Sioux 
war party, as they ascended the upper Mississippi one of the men took up his gun 
and shot a deer on the bank. The Indians said, " Wah-kon chi ?" — Is not this mys- 
terious? And from that day ^ * * the gun has been called Mah-za wah-kon, 
mysterious iron. This is shortened into Mah-za-kon. The same thing we may 
believe is true when, ])robably less than two centuries ago, they first saw a horee. 
They said "8hoou-ka wah-kon," wonderful dog. And from that day the horse KaS 
been called by the Sioux wonderful dog, except when it has been called big dog, 
Shoon-ka tonka. These historical facts have satisfied us that the idea of the Great 
Spirit ascribed to the Indians of North America does not Ixdong to the original 
theogouy of the Sioux, but has come from without, like that (sic) of the horse and 
gun, and probably dates back only to their first hearing of the white uum's God.^ 

Taku Walan. — This is a general term, iucluding all that is wouder- 
ful, iiicomj)relieusible, supernatural — what is wakan ; but es])ecially 
covering the objects of their worshii>. Until used in reference to our 
God, it is believed that the phrase was not api)lied to any individual 
object of wor.ship, but was equivalent to " the gods."^ As tuwe, icho, 
refers to per.sons, and taku, n-liat, to things, the correctness of Eiggs's 
conclusion can hardly be questioned, ])rovided we add that the Dakota 
term, Taku Wakan, could not have conveyed to the Dakota mind the 
idea of a personal God, using the term person as it is commoidy em- 
ployed by civilized peoples. 

DAIMONISM. 

§ 96. Lynd says : 

The divinities of evil among the Dakotas may be called legion. Their special 
delight is to make man miserable or to destroy him. Demons wander through the 
earth, causing sickness and death. Spirits of evil are ever ready to pounce upon 
and destroy the unwary. Spirits of earth, air, fire, and water (see ^ 36) surround 
him upon every side, and with but one great governing object in view — the misery 
and destruction of the human race.* 

ANIMISM. 

§ 97. Their religions system gives to everything a soul or spirit. 
Even the commonest sticks and clays have a spiritual essence attached 

• Riggs, Tah-koo Wali-koii, pp. 56, 57. 

2 Riggs iu Am. Antiq., Vol. ll, Ko. 4, p. 265; ami in Am. Philolog. As.soc. Pioc. 1872, pp. 5, 6. 

3 Riggs, in Am. Antiq., vol. n, Xo. 4. p. 200. Pond, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. n, pt. 3. p. 33. Smet, 
op. cit., 120, noti-. 

■•Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ii, pt. 2. 
11 ETH 28 



434 A STUDY OF ►SIOUAN CULTS. 

to til em which must needs be reverenced ; for these spirits, too, vent 
their wrath npon mankind. Indeed, there is no object, however trivial, 
but has its sjiirit.^ 

In his article on the Mythology of the Dakotas,^ Eiggs says of the 
Dakota : 

They pray to the sun, earth, moon, lakes, rivers, trees, plants, snakes, and all kinds 
of animals and vegetables — many of them say, to everything, for they pray to their 
guns and arrows — to any object, artificial as well as natural, for they suppose that 
every object, artificial as well as natural, has a spirit which may hurt or help, and 
so is a proper object of worship. 

Lynd says : 

The essentially physical cast of the Indian mind (if I may be allowed the ex- 
pression) requires some outward and tangible representation of things spiritual 
before he can comprehend them. The god must be x>resent, by image or in person, 
ere he can offer up his devotions. * * * Similar to this "belief in a spiritual 
essence" is the general Dakota belief that each class of animals or objects of a like 
kind possesses a peculiar guardian divinity, which is the mother archetype. * * * 
Sexuality is a prominent feature in the religion of the Dakotas. Of every species 
of divinity, with the exception of the Wakantauka, there is a plurality, part male 
and part female. Even the spirits, which are supposed to dwell in the earth, twigs, 
and other inanimate substances, are invested with distinctions of sex.^ 

§98. Pond asserts that "evidence is wanting to show that these 
people divide their Taku-wakau into classes of good and evil. They 
are all simply wakan." * 

PRINCIPAL DAKOTA GODS. 

The gods of the Dakotas are of course innumerable; but of the 
superior gods these are the chief: The Unktehi, or god of the water f 
the Wakinyan, or thunder god; the Takuskanskan, or moving god; 
the Tunkan, Inyan, or stone god; the Heyoka god; the Sun; the Moon; 
the Armor god ; the Spirit of the Medicine Sack; and the Wakantauka, 
who is probably an intrusive deity .^ 

MISS FLETCHER ON INDIAN RELIGION. 

§ 99. The following remarks are those of a later writer. Miss Fletcher: 

The Indian's religion is generally spoken of as a nature and animal worship. The 
term seems too broadcast and indiscriminate. Careful inquiry and observation fail 
to show that the Indian actually worships the objects which are set up or men- 
tioned by him in his ceremonies. The earth, four winds, the sun, moon, and stars, 
the stones, the water, the various animals, are all exponents of a mysterious life 
and power encompassing the Indian and filling him with vague apprehension and 
desire t«) propitiate and induce friendly relations. The latter is attempted not so 
much through the ideas of sacrifice as through more or less ceremonial appeals. 
More faith is put in ritual and a careful ol)servauce of forms than in any act of 
self-denial in its moral sense, as we understand it. The claim of relationship is 
used to strengthen the appeal, since the tie of kindred among the Indians is one 
wh ich can not be ignored or disregarded, the terms grandfather and grandmother b eing 

' Lynd, Ibid., p. 67. 'Am. Antiq., vol. v, 149. 3 Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. I, pt. 2, pp. 67. 68. 
^Il)id., pt. 3, p. 33. ' Riggs, Tah-koo Wah-kon, p. 61, et passim. 



DORSEY.] PRAYER. 435 

most general aud implying dependence, respect, and the recognition of authority. 
(See v\vn9, 100.) 

One of the simplest and most picturesque explanations of the use of the varied 
forms of life in the Indian worship was given to uie by a thoughtful Indian chief. 
He said: "Everything as it moves, now and then, here and there, makes stops. 
The bird as it flies stops in one place to make its nest, and in another to rest in its 
flight. A man when he goes forth stops when he wills. So the god has stopped. 
The sun, which is so bright aud beautiful, is one jdace where he has stoi)ped. The 
moon, the stars, the winds, he has been with. The trees, the animals, are all where 
he has stopped, and the Indian thinks of these places aud sends his prayers there to 
reach the place where the god has stopped and win help and a blessing."' 

The vague feeling after unity is here discernible, but it is like the cry of a child 
rather than the articulate speech of a man. To the Indian mind the life of the 
universe has not been analyzed, classified, and a great synthesis formed of the parts- 
To him the varied forms are equally important and noble. A devout old Indian 
said: "The tree is like a human being, for it has life aud grows ; so we pray to it 
and put our offerings on it that the god may help us." In the same spirit the apol- 
ogy is offered over a slaughtered animal, for the life of the one is taken to supple- 
ment the life of the other, "that it may cause us to live," one formula expresses it. 
These manifestations of life, stopping places of the god, can not therefore be accu- 
rately called objects of worship or symbols; they appear to be more like media of 
commuuication with the permeating occult force which is vaguely and fearfully 
apprehended. As a cousetiuence, the Indian stands abreast of nature. He does 
not face it, aud hence can not master or coerce it, or view it scieiititically and ajiart 
from his own mental aud emotional life. He appeals to it, but does not worship it.' 

PRAYER. 

§ 100. Every power is prayed to by some of the Dakota and Assini- 
boin. Amoug the accessories of prayer the Dakota reckons the fol- 
lowing: (a) Ceremonial wailing or crying (ceya, to weep, wail; whence, 
cekiya, to cry, to pray, aud wocekiye, prayer), sometimes accompanied 
by articulate speech (§§ 177, 208) ; {b) the action called yuwi"tapi (yuwiij'- 
tapi) described in § 24; {c) holding the pipe with the mouthpiece toward 
the power invoked, as the Heyoka devotees sometimes do (§§ 22.>, 221) ; 
(d) the use of smoke from the pipe or the odor of burning cedar needles 
(§§159, IGS); (e) the application of the kinship terms, "grandfather" 
(or its alternative, ''venerable man") to a male power, and " grand- 
mother" to a female one (§§ 90, 107, 239); (/) sacrifice, or offering of 
goods, animals, or pieces of one's own flesh, etc. (see § 185). 

SACRIFICE. 

§ 101. The radical forms of worship among the Dakota, according to 
Lynd, are few and simple. One of the most primitive is that of Wo- 
cnapi ( Wosnapi) or Sacrifice. To every divinity that they worship they 
make sacrifices. Even upon the most trivial occasions the gods are 
either thanked or supplicated by sacrifice. The religious idea it carries 
Avith it is at the fouiulatiou of the every-day life of the Dakota. The 
wohduze or taboo has its origin there; the wiwaijyag wa<5ipi or sun- 

1 Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. ni, p. 276, note. 



436 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

dance (§§ 141-211) carries with it the same idea; the wakai^ wohaijpi or 
sacred feast (feast of the first-fruits) is a practical embodimeut of it; 
and liaijnidepi or god-seekiug of the extreme western tribes is but a 
form of self-sacrifice. No Dakota in his worship neglects this ceremony. 
It enters into his religious thoughts at all times, even at the hour of 
death. The sacrifices made upon recovery from sickness are never 
comi)osed of anything very valuable, for the poverty of the Indian will 
not perndt this. Usually a small strip of muslin, or a piece of red clotli, 
a few skins of some animals, or other things of no great use or value are 
employed. Sometimes a pan or kettle is laid up for a sacrifice. But 
after a short time, the end for which the sacrifice was made is attained, 
and it is removed. Those in need of such things as they see ofl'ered in 
sacrifice may take them for their own use, being careful to substitute 
some other articles. Perhaps the most common forms of sacrifice are 
those which are made in the hunt. Particular portions of each animal 
killed are held sacred to the god of the chase or some other deities. If 
a deer is killed, the head, heart, or some other part of it is sacrified by 
the person who has slain it. The part sacrificed differs with different 
individuals. In ducks and fowls the most common sacrifice is of the 
wing, though many sacrifice the heart, and a few the head. This cus- 
tom is called wohduze, and is always constant with individuls, i. e., the 
same part is always sacrificed. The other wohduze or taboo is con- 
nected with the wotawe or armor,^ and will be described hereafter 
(§125). 

§102. Haymdepi or god-seeking. — Haijmdepi or god-seeking is a form 
of religion among the Dakotas that points back to a remote antiquity. 
The meaning of the word, in its common acceptation, appears to be 
greath" misunderstood by some. Literally, it means only to dream, and 
is but another form of haijma; but in its use it is applied almost wholly 
to the custom of seeking for a dream or revelation, practiced by the 
Sisitonwan, Ihanktonwanna, and TitouAvan (Sioux), and by the Crow, 
Minnetaree, Assiniboin, and other western Dakota. In this resi)ect 
it has no reference whatever to the common dreams of sleep, but means 
simply the form of religion practiced. 

If a Dakota wishes to be particularly successful in any (to him) im- 
portant undertaking, he first purifies himself by the Inipi or steam 
bath, and by fasting for a term of three days. During the whole of 
this time he avoids women and society, is secluded in his habits, and 
endeavors in every way to be pure enough to receive a revelation from 
the deity whom he invokes. When the period of fasting is i)assed he 
is ready for the sacrifice, which is made in various ways. Some, pass- 
ing a knife through the breast and arms, attach thongs thereto, which 
are fastened at the other end to the top of a tall pole raised for that i)ur- 
pose; and thus they hang, susi)ended only by these thongs, for two, 
three, or even four days, gazing upon vacancy, their minds being in- 



' Lj-nd, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll.. Vol. ii, pt. 2. p. 72. 



uoBSEY] HA^jMDEPI. 437 

tently fixed upon the objeet iu which they desire to be assisted by the 
deity, and waiting- for a vi.sion from above. Once a day an assistant is 
sent to look upon the person thas sacrificing himself. If the deities 
have vouchsafed him a Aision or revelation, he signifies the same by 
motions, and is released at once : if he be silent, his silence is under- 
stood, and he is left alone to his reverie. 

Others attach a buftalo hair rope to the head of a buftalo just as it is 
severed from the animal, and to the other end affix a hook, which is 
then passed through the large muscles in the small of the back, and 
thus fastened they drag the head all over the camp, their minds mean- 
while being fixed intently, as in the first instance, upon the object in 
which they are beseeching the deity to assist them. 

A third class pass knives through the tlesh in varimis parts of the 
body, and wait iu silence, though with fixed mind, for a dream or reve- 
lation. A few, either not blessed with the powers of endurance or else 
lacking the coiu-age of the class first named, will plant a pole upon the 
steep bank of a stream, and attaching ropes to the nuiscles of the arm 
and breast, as in the first instance, will stand, but not hang, gazing 
into space, without food or drink, for days. 

Still another class practice the haijmdepi without such horrid self- 
sacrifice. For weeks, nay. for mouths, they will fix their minds intently 
upon any desired object, to the exclusion of all others, frequently cry- 
ing about the camp, occasionally taking a little food, but fasting- for 
the most part, and earnestly seeking a revelation fiom their god.' 

§103. Similar testimony has been given respecting the Mandan. Hi- 
datsa, and Ankara, though this last tribe belongs to the Caddoan 
stock. Smet wrote thus about them: 

They cut otf their tiagers ami make deep incisions iu the deshy parts of the body 
before starting for war. in order to obtain the favors of their false gods. Ou my htst 
visit to these Kicaries, Minataries, and Mandans I could not discern a single man at 
all advanced in years whose body hail not been mutilated, or who possessed his full 
number of ringers. - 

In treating of the religious opinion of the Assiniboin. Smet says: 

Some burn tobacco, and present to the Great Spirit the most exquisite pieces of 
buffalo meat by casting them into the fire: while others make deep incisions in the 
lieshy parts of their bodies, and even cut off the first joints of their fingers to offer 
them in sacrifice. ' 

Lynd says: 

U04. Frequently the devout Dakota will make images of bark or stone, and. after 
painting them in various ways and putting sacred down upon them, will fall down 
in worship before them, praying that all danger may be averted from him and his. 
It must not be understood, however, that the Dakota is an idolater. It is not the 
image that he worships, * ' ^ but the spiritual essence which is represented by 
that image, and which is supposed to be ever near it.* 

' Lynil, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll.. Vol. u. pt. 2. pp. 72. 76. 77. 

-Smet. Western ^lissions and Missionaries, ji. 92. 

3 Ibid., p. 134. 

^Lvnd. Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll.. Vol. n. pt. 2. p. 67. 



438 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 

This plausible distinction has been made l)y persons of different 
nations at various periods in the Avorld's history, but it seems to be of 
doubtful value. 

USE OF I'AIXT IX WOKSHII'. 

§ 105. In the worship of their deities paint forms an important feature. 
Scarlet or red is the religious color for sacrifices, while blue is used by 
the women in many of the ceremonies in which they participate (§§ 374, 
375). This, however, is not a constant distinction of sex, for the women 
frequently use red or scarlet. The use of paints the Dakotas aver was 
taught them by the gods.^ 

For accounts of the Sun-dance and a sacrifice to the Dawn, see §§ 141, 
211, 215. 

THE UNKTEHI, OR SUBAQUATIC AND SUBTERRANEAN POWERS. 

§ 106. The gods of this name, for there are many, are the most powerful 
of all. In their external form they are said to resemble tlie ox, only 
they are of immense proportions. They can extend their horns and 
tails so as to reach the skies. These are the organs of their power. 
According to one account the Unktelii inhabit all deep waters, and 
especially all great waterfalls. Two hundred and eleven years ago, 
when Hennepin and Du Luth saw the Falls of St. Anthony together, 
there were some buffalo robes hanging there as sacrifices to the Unktehi 
of the ])lace.^ 

§ 107. Another account written by the same author informs us that 
the male Unktehi dwell in the water, and the spirits of the females 
animate the earth. Hence, when the Dakota seems to l)e offering 
sacrifices to the water or the earth, it is to this family of gods that the 
worship is rendered. They address the males as "grandfathers," and 
the females as "grandmothers." It is believed that one of these gods 
dwells under the Falls of St. Anthony, in a den of great dimensions, 
which is constructed of iron.^ 

§ 108. " The word Unktelii defies analysis, only the latter part giving 
us the idea of difficult [sic], and so nothing can be gathered from the 
name itself of the functions of these gods. But Indian legend generally 
describes the genesis of the earth as from the water. Some animal, as 
the beaver [compare the Iowa and Oto Beaver geutes, Paca and Paq^a. — 
J. o. D.] living in the waters, brought up, from a great depth, mud to 
build dry land.'' * According to the Dakota cosmogony, this was done 
by the Unktehi, called in the Teton dialect Unktcexila or Uijkcegila. ' 
(Compare the Winnebago, Waktceqi ikikaratcada or water-monster 
gens, and the Wakandagi ©f the Omaha and Pouka, see §§7,77). 

'Lj-nd, Minn. Hist, Soc. Coll., vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 80. 
^Eiggs, in Am. Antiq., vol. ll, p. 266. 

•Eiggs, Tah-koo Wah-kon, p. 62. See Maza or Iron names of Indian.s iu the author's forthcouiiug 
monograph on Indian Personal Xames. 
^Eiggs, iu Am. Antiq., vol. ii, p. 267. 



i>oH?EY.i POWER OF THE UNKTEUI. 439 

§ 100. The Iow;i and Oto tribes have aiuoug their uikie names. Xi 
wa^cike, Water Person, andXiwa-'cikemi. Water Person Female. If 
these do not refer to the beaver, they may have some connection with the 
water monsters or deities. An Omaha tohl the author a Yankton legend 
about these gods of the waters. The wife of the special Unktehi coveted 
an Indian child and drew it beneath the surface of the river. The father 
of the child had to ofter a white dog to the deity in order to recover his 
son: but the latter died on emerging from the water, as he had eaten 
some of the food of the Unktehi during his stay with the deity. After 
awhile the parents lost a daughter in like nu\nner, but as she did not eat 
any of the food of the Unktelii, she was recovered after an offering ot 

four white dogs.' 

Smet tells of offerings made by the Assiiiiboiii t.. -tlu' water and 
"the laud." but it is probable that they were made to the rnktehi.-' 

.; 110. The Dakota pray to lakes and rivers, according to Kiggs,^ but 
he does not say whether the visible objects were worshiped or whether 
the worship was intended for the Unktehi supposed to dwell m those 

lakes and rivers. 

I'OWER OF THE VXKTEHI. 

vN 111 These gods have power to send from their bodies a wakan in- 
fluence which is irresistible even by the superior gods. This influence is 
termed "tonwan." This power is common to all the Taku Wakan. And 
it i-ldaimed that this tonwan is infused into each mystery sack which 
is used in the mvsterv dance. A little to the left of the road leading 
from Fort Suelliug to Minnehaha, in sight of the fort, is a hill which is 
used at present as a burial place. This hill is known to the Dakota as 
"Taku Wakan tipi." the dwelling place of the gods. It isbeheved that 
one of the Unktehi dwells there. 

§ 112 The Unktehi are thought to feed on the spirits ot human be- 
ings and references to this occur in the mystic songs. The mystery least 
and the mvsterv dance have been received from these gods. The sacri- 
fices required by them are the soft down of the swan reddened with ver- 
milion, deer skins, dog, mystery feast and mystery dances 

In Aliss Fletcher s article on -The Shadow or Ghost Lodge: A cere- 
mony of the Ogallala Sioux," we read that 2 yards of red cloth are 
"carried out bevond the camp, t.. an elevation if possible, and buried 
in a hole about 3 feet deep. This is an oftering to the ear h. and t lie 
chanted praver asks that the life, or power in earth, will help the 
father" of the dead child -in keeping successfully all the requirements 
of the ghost lodge.' '^ (See § 116.) 

SIBORDIXATES OF THK rXKTEUI. 

. The subordinates of the Unktelii are serpents, lizards, frogs, ghosts 
owls, and eagles. The Unktehi mad^he^earm ami men, aiuUavenie 

» Missions and Missionaries, p. 136. Kej.!. it. u . 



440 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

Dakota the mystery sack, and also ijrescribed the manner in which some 
of those pigments must be applied which are rubbed over the bodies of 
their votaries in the mystery dance, and on the warrior as he goes into 
action. 

THE MYSTERY DANCE. 

§ 113. Immediately after tlie production of the earth and men, the 
Unktehi gave the Indians the mystery sack and instituted the Wakan 
wacipi or mystery dance. They ordained that the sack should consist 
of the skin of the otter, raccoon, weasel, squirrel, loon, one variety of 
fish, and of serpents. It was also ordained that the sack should contain 
four species of medicines of wakan qualities, which should represent 
fowls, medicinal herbs, medicinal trees, and quadrni)eds. The di)wn 
of the female swan represents the first, and may be seen at the time of 
the dance inserted in the nose of the sack. Grass roots represent the 
second, bark from the roots of the trees the third, and hair from the 
back or head of a bufialo the fourth. These are carefully preserved in 
the sack. From this combination proceeds a wakan influence so pow- 
erful that no human being, unassisted, can resist it. 

Those who violated their obligations as members of the Mystery dance, 
were sure of punishment. If they went into forests, the black owl was 
there, as a servant of the Unktelii ; if they descended into the earth, 
they encountered the serpent; if they ascended into the air, the eagle 
would pursue and overtake them; and if they ventured into the water, 
there were the Unktelii themselves.^ An account of the mystery or 
medicine dance is given by Pond, op. cit., pp. 37-41. 

"Those Dakotas," said Lynd, "who belong to the medicine dance es- 
teem the Unktehi as the greatest divinity. Among the eastern Dakotas 
the medicine dance appears to have taken the place of these more bar- 
barous ceremonies (i. e., the self-tortures of the hanmdepi, piercing of 
the flesh, etc.) — among the Winnebagoes entirely." 

The Omaha do not have the sun dance, but the wacicka a<|;i", answer- 
ing to the Dakota mystery dance, is said to be of ancient use among 
them. 

"Indeed, the medicine dance, though an intrusive religious form, may 
be considered as an elevating and enlightening religion in comparison 
with the hanmdepi.'" 

THE MINIWATU. 

§ 114. Tlie Teton Dakota tell of the Miniwatu, Wamnitu,^ and Mini 
wasicu, all of wliich are probably names for the same class of monsters, 
the last meaning " Water God or Guardian Spirit." These powers are 
said to be horned water monsters with four legs each. "They make 

'Pond, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll, vol. ii, pp. 35-38. 

^Lynd, Ibid., pt. 2, pp. 71-77. Riggs, in Amer. Philolog. Assoc. Proc, 1872., p. 6. 
3 A picture of " Wah-Menitn, the .spirit or god in the water," is given on p. 161 of Lloyd's transla- 
tion of Maximilian, London, 1843. 



DoRSEY.l THE MINIWATU. 441 

waves by pushing- the water toward the k)wlaiids; therefore, the In- 
dians prefer to encamp on or near the bluffs. They fear to swim the 
Missouri River on account of the water monsters, who can draw people 
into their mouths." Can these be the Uuktehi, whom the Teton call 
Uijkce^nla ? 

§ 115. " Long ago," according to Bushotter, "the people saw a strange 
thing in the Missouri Eiver. At night there was some red object, shin- 
ing like tire, making the water roar as it passed upstream. Should any 
one see the monster by daylight he became crazy soon after, writhing 
as with pain, and dying. One man who said that he saw the monster 
described it thus: ' It has red hair all over, and one eye. A horn is in 
the middle of its forehead, and its body resembles that of a buffalo." 
Its backbone is like a cross-cut saw, being Hat and notched like a 
saw or cog wheel. When one sees it he gets bewildered, and his eyes 
close at once. He is crazy for a day, and then he dies. The Teton 
think that this matter is still in the river, and they call it the Miniwatu 
or water monster. They think that it causes the ice on the river to 
break up in the spring of the year."'^ 

The Teton say that the bones of the Uijkcegila are now found in the 
bluffs of Nebraska and Dakota. 

THE WAKI^YA^ (WAKI?JYAI^), OR THUNDER-BEINGS. 

§ 116. The name signities the Hying ones, from kinyan, to fly. The 
thunder is the sound of their voices. The lightning is the missile or 
ton wan of the winged monsters, who live and fly through the heavens 
shielded from mortal vision by thick cl<mds. By some of the wakan 
men it is said that there are four varieties of the form of their external 
manifestation. In essence, however they are but one. One of the 
varieties is black, with a long beak, and has four joints in his wing. 
Another is yellow, without any beak at all; with wings like the first, 
excei)t that he has six quills in each wing. The third is scarlet, and 
remarkable chiefly for having eight joints in each of its enormous pin- 
ions. The fourth is blue and globular in form, and it is destitute of both 
eyes and ears. Immediately over the places where the eyes should be 
there is a semicircular line of lightning resembling an inverted half 
moon from beneath which project downward two chains of lightning 
diverging from each other in zigzag lines as they descend. Two plumes 
like soft down, coming out near the roots of the descending chains of 
lightning, serve for wings.-' 

These thunderers, of course, are of terrific proportions. They (treated 
the wild rice and a variety of prairie grass, the seed of which bears 
some resemblance to that of the rice. At the western extremity of the 



'According to Omaha traditiou, two buffalo gentes are of subaquatic origin. See Oiu. Soc, pp. 231- 
2;i3. 

'From an unpublished text of Bushotter. 

"The Thunderers in the Omaha mytli luive hair of ditrerent cidoi-.s. One lias white hair, the second 
has yellow, t!ie third, brijjhtred, and tlie fiiurtli. jiie -n Iiair. Si'e Coutr, X. A. Kth.. vol. vi. p. 137. 



442 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

earth, which is supposed to be a circular plaiu surrounded by water, is 
a high mountain, on the summit of which is a beautiful mound. On this 
mound is the dwelling of the Wakinyan gods. The dwelling opens 
toward each of the four quarters of the earth, and at each doorway is 
stationed a sentinel. A butterfly stands at the east entrance, a bear 
at the west, a reindeer [sic, j^robably intended for a deer. — j. o. d.] at 
the north, and a beaver at the south [the beaver seems out of place 
here as a servant of the Wakinyan gods, for, judging from analogy, 
he ought to be the servant of the Unktehi (see § 108) — j. o. D.]. 

Except the head, each of these wakan sentinels is enveloped in scar- 
let down of the most extraordinary beauty.' 

§ 117. The Teton texts of Bushotter state the belief that " some of 
these ancient people still dwell in the clouds. They have large curved 
beaks resembling bison humps, their voices are loud, they do not open 
their eyes except when tht\y make lightning, hence the archaic Teton 
name for the lightning, Wakinyan tunwanpi, " The thunder-beings 
open their eyes." They are armed with arrows and " maza wakan " or 
"mysterious irons" (not "guns"), the latter being of different kinds. 
Kaijgitame, stones resembling coal, are found in the Bad Lands, and 
they are said to be the missiles of the Thunderers. When these gods 
so desire they kill various mysterious beings and objects, as well as 
human beings that are mysterious. Their ancient foes were the giant 
rattlesnakes and the prehistoric water monsters (Uijk<;egila: see §§ 108, 
114, 115). 

§118. Long ago the Teton encamped by a deep lake whose shore 
was inclosed by very high cliils. They noticed that at night, even 
when there was no breeze, the water in the middle of the lake was con- 
stantly roaring. When one gazed in that direction, he saw a huge 
eye as bright as the sun, which (;aused him to vomit something resem- 
bling black earth moistened with water, and death soon followed. 
That very night the Thunderers came, and the crashing sounds were 
so terrible that many people fainted. The next morning the shore was 
covered with the bodies of all kinds of fish, some of which were larger 
than men, and there were also some huge serpents. The water mon- 
ster Avhich the Thunderers had fought resembled a rattlesnake, but he 
had short legs and rusty-yellow fur. 

§119. The Thunderers are represented as cruel and destructive in 
disposition. They are ever on the war path. A mortal hatred exists 
between them and the family of the Unktehi. Neither has power to 
resist the ton wan of the other if it strikes him. Their attacks are never 
open, and neither is safe except he eludes the vigilance of the other. 
The Wakinj^an, in turn, are often suri)rised and killed by the Unktehi. 
Many stories are told of the combats of these gods. Mr. Pond once 
listened to the relation, by an eyewitness (as he called himself), of a 
story in substance as follows : A Wakinyan measuring 25 to 30 yards 



' Pond, Miiin. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. ii, pt. 2, 41-42. 



DORSEY.i THE WAKIT^YAIJ THE ARMOR GODS. 443 

between the tips of bis wings was killed and fell on the bank of the 
Blue Earth river (Minnesota). 

From the Wakinyau the Dakota have received their war implements, 
the spear and tomahawk, and many of the i)igments, whic^, if jjroperly 
applied, will shield them from the weapons of their enemies.^ 

§!-!(). When a person dreams of the Thunderers, it is a sign that 
he and they must tight. The Wakiuyan are not the only gods of war; 
there are also the Takucka"cka" (Takuskanskan) and the Armor gods. 
(See §§ 122-3, 127-9.) 

Of the circle dance, Riggs says (in Amer. Antiq., ii, 267) : "■ They cut 
an image of the great bird from bark and suspend it at the top of the 
central pole, which is shot to pieces at the close of the dance." (He 
probably means that the image of the great bird, a Thunder bird, is 
shot to pieces, not the pole.) Sacrifices are made to the Wakiuyan 
and songs are sung both to the Wakinyau and the Unktehi. 

§ 121. There seems to be some connection between the Heyoka gods 
and the Wakinyau; but it is not plain. The Heyoka god uses a snuill 
Wakiuyan god as his drumstick. (See §218.) The Wakiuyan songs 
are sung by members of the Heyoka dancing order. 

Smet was told that the Dakota — 

Pretend that the thnntler is au euormous bird, and that the muffled sound of the 
distant thunder is caused by a countless number of young (thunder) birds. The 
great bird, they say, gives the first sound, and the young ones repeat it; this is the 
cause of tlie reverberations. The Sioux declai'e that the young thunderers do all the 
mischief, like giddy youth who vrill not listen to good advice; but the old thun- 
derer or big bird is wise and excellent ; he never kills or injures any one.- 

Next to the Sun, according to Smet, Thunder is the great deity of the 
Assiniboin. Every spring, at the first peal of thunder, they offer sac- 
rifices to the Wakinyau.^ 

The Assiniboin, according to Maximilian, ascribed the thunder to au 
euormous bird.* 

THE ARMOR GODS. 

§ 122. As each young man comes to maturity a tutelar divinity, some- 
times called "Wasicuij" (see §236), is assigned to him. It is supposed 
to reside in the consecrated armor then given to him, consisting of a 
spear, an arrow, and a small bundle of paint. It is the spirit of some 
bird or animal, as the wolf, beaver, loon, or eagle. He must not kill 
this animal, but hold it ever sacred, or at least until he has jjroved his 
manhood by killing au enemy. Frequently the young man forms an 
image of this sacred animal and carries it about with him, regarding 
it as having a direct infiuence upon his everyday life and ultimate 
destiny. Parkman says (in his "Jesuits in North America," p. lxxi. 



> Poud, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 3, p. 43. Kii;g.s, Titli-koo Wab-kou, i>p. 62-64. 

2 Missions and Missionaries, p. 143. 

3 Smet. op. cit., p. 134. 

^Maximilian, Travels in Nortli America, p. 197. 



444 A bTUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

note) that the knowledge of this guardian spirit comes through dreams 
at the initiatory fast. If this is ever true among the Dakota, it is not 
tlie rule. This knowledge is communicated by the ''war prophet.?'^ 
(See §§120, 127, 12U, 305, etc.) 

Ashley tells ns that among the Sisseton and Wahpeton Dakota the 
warrior, as such, was forbidden by custom of law to eat the tongue, 
head, or heart of many beasts. There were other animals of which the 
heads might be eaten, but not the tongues. A warrior about to go on 
the war path could not have intercourse with women, but must go 
through the purification of the inipi or sweat bath, which lasts four 
days. A married warrior could not touch his own weapons until he 
had thus jmritied himself.^ 

§ 123. Tlie Armor god and the Spirit of the mystery sack are some- 
times spoken of as if they were individual and separate divinities; but 
they seem rather to be the god-power which is put into the armor and 
sack by consecration. They should be regarded as the indwelling of 
the Unktelii or of the Takuskanskan. A young man's war weapons 
are wakan and must not be touched. by a woman. A man prays to his 
armor in the day of battle. In the consecration of these weapon^s of 
Avar and the hunt a young man comes under certain taboo restrictions. 
Certain parts of an animal are sacred and must not be eaten until he 
has killed an enemy. ^ 

THE WAR PROPHET. 

§ 124. The war prophet has been referred to. In this capacity the 
wakan man is a necessity. Every male Dakota 16 years old and upward 
is a soldier, and is formally and mysteriously enlisted into the service of 
the war prophet. From him lie receives the implements of war, care- 
fully constructed after models furnished from the armory of the gods, 
painted after a divine prescription, and charged with a missive virtue — 
the ton wan — of the divinities. From him he also receives those paints 
which serve as an armature for the body. To obtain these necessary 
articles the proud applicant is required for a time to abuse himself and 
serve him, while he goes through a series of painful and exhausting 
performances which are necessary on his part to enlist the favorable 
notice ot the gods. These performances consist chiefly of vapor baths, 
fastings, chants, prayers, and nightly vigils. The spear and the toma- 
hawk being prepared and consecrated, the person who is to receive 
them approaches the wakan man and presents a pipe to him. He asks 
a favor, in substance as follows: "Pity thou me, poor and helpless, a 
woman, and confer on me the ability to perform manly deeds." The 
prophet gives him the weapons and tells hiin not to forget his vows to 
the gods when he returns in triumph, a man. The weapons are care- 
fully jireserved by the warrior. They are wrapped in cloth, together 



• Kiggs, Tahkoo Wah-koii, pp, 69, 70. 

2Kev. E. Asliley, MS. letter to Dorsey, March 21, 1884. 

^Riggs. in Am. Autiq., vol, ll, No. 4, p. 270. 



o^RSEY.l THE WAR PROPHET TAKUSKAIJSKA?^^ 445 

with the sacred pigments. In tUir weather they are hiid outside of the 
lodge every day. They must never be touched by an adult female. ' 

§ 125. Lyud's account is slightly difi'ereut, thoufjh in substantial accord 
with the preceding- one: 

Wlifii ;i yoiitli arrives at Hie age proper for goiug on the warpath he first purifies 
hiiubelf liy lasting and the iiiij)! or steam baHi for three days, and then goe.s, with 
tears in liia eyes, to some \v.ik;in man whose influenee is nndonbted, and prays that 
he will present him with the wotawe or consecrated armor. This wakau man is 
usually some old and experienced zuya wakan or sacred war leader. After a time 
the armor is presented to the young man, Imt until it is so presented he must fast 
and continue his purifications iueessautly. It is a singular fact tiiat nothing but 
the spear of this armor is ever used in battle, though it is always carried when the 
owner accompanies a war party. At the same time that the old man presents the 
armor he tells the youth to what animal it is dedicated, and enjoins upon him to 
h(dd that animal wakan. He must never harm or kill it, even though starvation 
threaten him. At all times and under all circumstances the taboo or wohduze is 
upon it, until by slaying numerous enemies it is gradually removed. By some the 
animal is held sacred during life, the taboo being voluntarily retained.- (See v^^S 
101, 127.) 

THE SPIRITS OF THE MYSTERY SACKS. 

§ 12(5. These are similar to the armor gods, in that they are divinities 
who act as guardian spirits. Each of these powers is a]>proi)riated 
by a single individual, [)rotecting- and ai<ling' him, and receiving liis 
worship. These spirits are conferred at the tiiiu' of initiation into 
the order <»f the Mystery Dance, and of cour.se are confined to the mem- 
bers of that Older. ' Each si)irit of the mystery sack is not a separate 
god. but a wakan power derived from the TJuktelii, according to a later 
statement of Riggs.^ 

TAKUSKAIJSKAIJ, THE MOVING DEITY. 

§ 127. This is a form of the wakau which Jugglers, so-called mystery 
men, and war proi)hets invoke. In their estimation he is the most 
powerful of their gods; the one most to be feared and i)ropitiated, since, 
more than all others, he intlueuces human Aveal and woe. lie is sui)posed 
to live in the four winds, and the four black spirits of night do his bid- 
ding. The consecrated spear and tonmhawk (see § 124) are its weapons. 
The buzzard, raven, fox, wolf, and other aninuils are its lieutenants, to 
produce disease and death.^ (Comi)are this with some of tlie picto- 
graphs on the war chart of the Kansa tribe: Fig. 4, Wind songs; the 
connection between the winds and war is shown in § 33, Fig. S, Deer 
. songs. Fig. 9, an Elk song. Fig. 10, seven songs of the Wakanda who 
makes night songs. Fig. 11, five songs of the Big Eock. This is a 
rough red rock near To])eka, Kans. ''This rock has a hard body, like 
that of a wakanda. I\Iav vou walk like it." Fig. 12, Wolf songs. The 



> Pond, Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ii, pt 3, p. 53. * Am. Antiq., Vol. ii, No. 4, p. 270. 

^ Ibid., pt. 2, p. 73. *Kiggs in Am. Antiq., Vol. n. p. 268 

^ Kiggs, Tali-koo Wah-kon, i)p. 70, 71. 



446 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

wolf bowls at night. Fig. 13, Moon song.s. Fig. 14, Crow songs. The 
crow flies around a dead body which it wishes to devour. Fig. 18, Shade 
songs. There is a Wakanda who makes shade. Fig. 20, song of the 
Small Eock. Fig. 22, songs of the young Moon. Fig. 23, songs of the 
Buffalo Bull. Fig. 27, Owl songs. The owl hoots at night.') 

§ 128. Miss Fletcher has given us a very interesting account of "The 
Eeligious Ceremony of the Four Winds or Quarters, as obseri^ed by 
the Santee Sioux." "Among the Santee (Sioux) Indians the Four 
Winds are symbolized by the raven and a small black stone, less than 
a hen's egg in size.*' "An intelligent Santee said to me: 'The worship 
of the Four Winds is the most difficult to explain for it is the most 
complicated.' The Four Winds are sent by the 'Something that 
Moves.'"^ There is a "Something that Moves*' at each of the four di- 
rections or quarters. The winds are, therefore, the messengers or ex- 
ponents of the powers which remain at the four quarters. These four 
quarters are spoken of as upholding the earth,^ and are connected 
with thunder and lightning as well as the wind.^ # * * 

"My informant went on to tell me that the spirits of the four winds 
were not one, but twelve, and they are spoken of as twelve."^ (See 
§42.) 

§ 129. In Tah-koo Wah-kon, pp. 64, Go, Riggs says: 

This god is too subtle in essence to be perceived, by the senses, and is as subtle in 
disposition. He is present everywhere. He exerts a coutrollinjr iufltieuce over 
instinct, intellect, and })assiou. He can rob a man of the use of his rational faculties, 
and insjnre a beast with intelligence, so that the hunter will wander idiot-like, while 
the game on Avhich he hoped to feast his family at night escapes with perfect ease. 
Or, if lie jtlease, the god can reverse his intluence. He is much gratified to see men 
in trouble, and is particularly glad when they die in battle or otherwise. Passionate 
and capricious in the highest degree, it is very difficult to retain his favor. His 
sj'mboland supposed residence is the bowlder (see Big Eock and Small Kock, ^ 127), 
as it is also of another god, the Tunkan. 

Pond assigns to him the armor feast and inipi or vapor bath (called 
steam or sweat bath). He says:*' 

The armor feast is of ordinary occurrence when the provisions are of sufficient 
abundance to supi)ort it, in which the warriors assemble and exhibit the sacred 
implements of war, to which they burn incense around the smoking sacrifice. 

§ 130. In October, 1881, the late S. D. Hinman read a paper before the 
Anthropological Society of Washington, entitled "The Stone God or 

•MoiirniiiK andvWar Customs of the Kansas, in Am. Xaturali.st, July, 1885, pi). 67C, 677. 

-That is, the Takuskaijskaii. 

'Geikie. in his Hours -^vitli the Bible (Xew York : James Pott. 1881), Vol. I, p. 55. has the following 
quotation from Das Bnch Henoch, edited hy Dilhuann, Kap. 17,18: "And I saw the cornerstone of 
the earth and the four winds wliich bear up the earth, and the firmament of heaven." 

'Xote that both tlie Takuskai]skai), the 'Something that Moves.'' and the Waldqyai) or the Thun- 
der-beings, are associated with war. — J. o. d. 

■^Kept. Peabody Museum, Vol. in. p. 289. and note 1. Theuseof the number twelve in connection with 
the ceremony of the Four Winds finds a counterpart in the Osajre Initiation of a female into the se- 
cret society of the tribe: the Osage female is rubbed from head to foot, thrice in front, thrice on each 
side, and thrice behind, with cedar needles. — J. O. D. 

«iliuu. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. U. pt. 3, p. 44. 



DORSET.] TUNKAN OR INYAN. 447 

Oracle of the Pute-temui band of Iluukpati Dakotas."' He said that 
this oracle had been seen by him while on an expedition with some 
Uakotas across the James Kiver valley in Dakota Territory. A Hun- 
kpati man of the party gave the history of the stone and an account of 
its miraculous movement from the Sacred Hill to the old dirt lodge vil- 
lage. This oracle was called the Takuskaijskaij. 

§ 131. But the Takuskaijskaij assumed other shapes. Said Bushotter, 
in one of his Teton texts : 

The Lakotas regartl certain small stones or pebbles as mysterious, and it is said 
that in former days a man had one as his helper or servant. There are two kinds of 
these mysterious stones (i. e., pebbles, not rocks). One is white, resembling ice or 
glass (i.e., is probably translucent ; compare the translucent pebbles of the I"-:>iug(|!i 
order of the Omaha, see Om. Soc, p. 346) ; the other resembles ordinary stones. It is 
said that one of them once entered a lodge; and struck a man, and people spoke of 
the stones sending in rattles through the smoke hole of a lodge. When anything 
was missed in the village the people appealed to the stones for aid, and the owner 
of one of the stones boiled food for a mystery feast, to which the people came. Then 
they told the stone of their loss and the stone helped them. It is said that the stones 
brought back different messages. If anyone stole horses the stones always revealed 
his name. Once the Oniahas came to steal horses, but the stones knew about them 
and disappointed their secret plans; so that the Lakotas learned to prize the stones, 
and they decorated them with paint, wrapped them up, and hung a bunch of medi- 
cine with each .one. 

It is very probable that the Assiniboin also worsliipped the Taku- 
^karjskaij; for they reverenced the four winds, as Smet tells us.^ 

TUNKAN OR INYAN, THE STONE GOD OR LINGAM. 

§ 132. It has been said by Lynd- that the western tribes (probably 
the Teton, Yanktouai, Yankton, etc.), neglect the Unktehi, and pay 
their main devotion to Tunkan or Invan, answering to the Hindoo 
Lingam. 

Tunkan, the Dakotas say, is the god that dwells iu stones and rocks, and is the'' 
oldest god. If asked why he is considered the oldest, they will tell you because he 
is the hardest- an Indian's reason. The usual form of the stone employed in wor- 
ship is round, and it is about the size of the human head. The devout Dakota paints 
this Tunkan red, putting colored swan's down upon it, and then he falls down and 
w^orships the god that is supposed to dwell iu it or hover near it. ' The Tunkan is 
painted red (see § 136) as a sign of active worship.-* In cases of extremity I have 
ever noticed that they appeal to their Tunkan or stone god, first and last, and they 
do this even after the ceremonies of the medicine dance have been gone through 
with. All Sioux agree in saying that the Tunkan is the main recipient of their 
prayers; and among the Tetons, Mandans, Yanktons, and Western Dakotas they 
pray to that and the spirit of the butfalo almost entirely.^ 

§133. Riggs says:*' 

"The Inyan or Toon-kan is the symbol of the greatest force or power in the dry 
land. And these came to be the most common objects ol worship. Large bowldwrs 
were selected and adorned with red and green (sic) paint, whither the devout 

> Op. cit., p. 136. iR.id., p. 81. 

sMmn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. ;i, p. 71. nhU\., p. 84. 

3 Ibid., p. 79. ° Am. Auti<i., vol. U, p. 268. 



448 A STUDY OF SIOUAX CULTS. 

Dakota might go to pray and offer liis sacrifice. And smaller stones were often 
found, set up on end and properly painted, around which lay eagles' feathers, 
tobacco, and red cloth. Once I saw a small dog that had been recently sacrificed. 
In all their incantations and dances, notably in the circle dance, the painted stone 
is the god supplicated and worshipped with fear and trembling."' 

§ 134. Long tells of a gioautic stoue figure resembling a human being, 
\yhicli he found on the bank of Kickapoo Creek. The Indians made 
offerings to it of tobacco and other objects.^ 

I^'YAN SA. 

§ 135. Eev. Horace C. Hovey says:-' 

"It was the custom of the Dakotas to worship bowlders when in perplexity and 
distress. Clearing a spot from grass and brush they would roll a bowlder on it, 
streak it with paint, deck it with feathers and flowers, and then pray to it for needed 
help or deliverance. Usually when such a stone had served its purpose its sacred- 
ness was gone. But the peculiarity of the stone now described is that from gen- 
eration to generation it was a shrine to Avhich pilgrimages and offerings were made. 
Its Indian name, ' Eyah Shah,' simply means the ' Red Rock,' and is the same term 
by which they designate catlinite, or the red pipe clay. The rock itself is not natu- 
rally red, being merely a hard specimen of granite, symmetrical in shape, and about 
5 feet long by 3 feet thick. The Indians also called it 'waukon' (mystery) and 
speculated as to its origin. * " * The particular clan that claimed this rude altar 
was kuo^vnas the Mendewakantous. Although being but 2 miles below the village 
of the Kaposias. it was to some extent resorted to by them likewise. - The hunting 
ground of the clan was up the St. Croix, and invariably before starting they would 
lay an offering on Eyah Shah. Twice a year the clan would meet more formally, 
when they would paint the stone with vermilion, or, as some say, with blood, then 
trim it with flowere and feathers, and dance around it before sunrise with chants 
and prayers. Their last visit was in 1862, prior to the massacre that occurred in 
August of that year. Since that date, the stripes were renewed three years ago. 
I counted the stripes and found them twelve in number, each about 2 inches wide, 
with intervening spaces from 2 to 6 inches wide. By the compass, Eyah Shah lies 
exactly north and south. .It is twelve paces from the main bank of the Mississippi, 
at a pi)int 6 miles below St. Paul. The north end is adorned by a rude representa- 
tion of the sun with fifteen rays.'" 

§ 136. Bushotter writes thus: 

"Sometimes a stone, painted red all over, is laid within the lodge and hair is offered 
to it. In cases of sickness they pray to the stone, offering to it tobacco or various 
kinds of good things, and they think that the stone hears them when they sacrifice to 
it. As the steam arose when they made a fire on a stone, the Dakotas concluded that 
stones had life, the steam being their breath, and that it was impossible to kill them." 

.MATO TIPI. 

§ 137. Eight miles from Fort Meade, S. Dakota, is Mato tipi. Grizzly 
bear Lodge, known to the white people as Bear Butte. It can be seen 
from a distance of a hundred miles. Of this landmark Bushotter 
writes thus : 

"The Teton used to camp at a flat-topped mountain, and pray to it. This moun- 



'Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ir, pt. 1. pp. 55. 

= HoTey on 'Eyah Shah '' in Am. Assoc. Adv. ScL, Proc, vol. xxxiv, Bufifalo Meeting, 1886. Salem, 
1887. p. 332. Also in Am. Autiq., Jan., 1887, pp. 35, 36. 

^Mr. Hovey appears ignorant of the fact that the Kapoza ('Kaposias ') are a division of the Mde- 
wakanton-wan. The latter had si.'c other divisions or i;entes. 



w««i-] 3L\TO TIPl — : 44r> 

tain hail inaoj large rocks oa it. an*! 
praywl to the nx'ks as if to tt 
one» betweeii the branchf-:? 




tree. Some trees had as many as seven $tone:> apie«t^ . re»«ated the r«re- 

monv of putting a stone up in the tre.e - - - - - e Butte he >jt 

she wailed for the ilead. of whi'ui the ^: - 



--)■ 



THE SFX AXD >IOON. 



§ 138. The sua as well as the moou is called '• wi" by the I>afcota and 
Assiuiboiu tribes. In order to distingmish between the two Knlies, the 
former is called aijpetii wi^ day moiui. and the latte' " • -^ • ' • 
haijyetn wi. night moou. The corresponding term i 
which is applietl to l>oth snu and m«>m, tl _ 

called nia^ba. •• The moon is woi-shipeil i . ..- .„ :,.-.. .:..., 

of the snn, than separately. Thus, in the sun dance, which is held in 
the full of the moou, the daucei-s at ui^ht fix their eyes on her.**^ 

§ 139. According to Smet- — 

The sttu is worshijted by the srreater niiuil>er of the IiMiian trihes as th<* author ©f 
light and heat. The As- ^ - ^ 

the M;K-ter of Life. TL 

Ktrely address it. On greuj ..KCiisiou^s. cu«-> Muet low 

tone. Whenever they 11,:'.' t^^ i' n.^'r. t^-v .. - ■•:> 

smoke. 

This last must relet " w i u, c:«:.t; u<--<L:..t^ ,.u i>. i >•> lc 

''festival lasting several days," during which the "high \ ers 

the calumet to "the i»i"eat Spirit, to the sun. to each of the tour i-ar 
dinal iH)ints. to the water, and to the 1 -• V " "'' " "•'< tualogoustothe 
Iwnetits which thcv obtain fii>nt each. 



11 ETH -^J 



450 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. "" 

§ 140. Biisliotter, in his Teton text, says : 

They prayed to the sun, aud they thought that with his yellow eye he saw all 
thiugs, and that when he desired he went under the ground. 

Eiggs states in Tali-koo Wah-kon (p. GO): 

Although as a divinity, the sun is not represented as a malignant heing, yet the 
worship given him is the most dreadful which the Dakotas offer. Aside from ihe 
sun dance, there is another proof of the divine character ascrihed to the sun in the 
oath taken by some of the Dakotas : "As the sun hears me, this is so." 

THE SfN DANCE. 

§ 141. Pond' gave an account of the sun dance obtained from Kiggs, 
in which occurs the following: "The ceremonies of the sun dance 
commence in the evening. I have been under the impression that the 
time of the full moon was selected, but I am now (1867) informed that 
it is not essential." Neither Capt. Bonrke (§§ 197-210) nor Bushotter 
speaks of the time of the full moon. In Miss Fletcher's account of the 
Oglala sun dance of 1882,- she says: " The festival generally occurs in 
the latter part of June or early in July and lasts about six days. The 
time is fixed by the budding of the Artemisia ludovicianay (See §§ 138, 
150.) 

§ 142. Lynd writes : ' 

The wiwauyag wacipi, or w'orship of the sun as a divinity, is evidently one of the 
most radical bases of Dakota religion. It has a su)>ordinate origin in the wihan- 
mnapi, or dreaming, and is intimately connected with the hanmdejii, or vision hunt- 
ing. This most ancient of all worships, though it is of very frequent occurrence 
among the Dakotas, does not take place at stated intervals, as among the old nations 
of the East, nor does the whole tribe participate in the ceremonies. It is performed 
by one person alone, such of his relatives and friends assisting in the ceremonies as 
may deem fit or as he may designate. Preparatory to this, as to all the other sacred 
ceremonies of the Dakotas, are fasting and purification. The dance commences with 
the rising of the sun and continues for three days, or until such time as the dream- 
ing worshiper shall receive a vision from the spirit or divinity of the sun. He faces 
the sun constantly, turning as it turns, and kee[»ing up a constant blowing with a 
wooden whistle. A rude drum is beaten at intervals, to which he keeps time with 
his feet, raising one after the other, and bending his body towards the sun. Short 
intervals of rest are given during the dance. The mind of the W(<rshiper is fixed 
intently ujion some great desire that he has, and is, as it were, isolated from the 
body. In this state the dancer is said to receive revelations from the sun, and to 
hold direct intercourse w^th that deity. If the worshiper of this luminary, how- 
ever, should fail to receive the desired revelation before the close of the ceremonies, 
then self-sacrifice is resorted to, and the ceremonies of the hanmdepi become a part 
of the worship of the sun. 

A Dakota's account of the sun dance. 

§ 143. Several accounts of the sun dance have been published within 
the past twenty years, but they have, without exception, been written 
by white ])ersons. The following differs in one respect from all which 
have preceded it; it was written in the Teton dialect of the Dakota, by 

> Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., Vol. ii, pt. 3. 

^ Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Montreal meeting, Vol. xxxi, p. 580. 

3 Minn. Hist. Soc. CoU., Vol. u, pt. 2. 



DORSEv.j " BUSHOTTER OX THE SUN DANCE. 451 

Georjie IJushotter, a Teton. As be did uot furnish his description of 
tlie dance in a single text, but in several, which were Avritten on dif- 
ferent occasions, it devolved on the present writer to undertake an 
arrangement of the material after translating it. The accompanying 
illustrations were mad(^ by Mr. Bushotter. 

§ 144. Object of the sioi (Jance.— The Dakc^ta name for the sun dance 
is ''Wi wa"-yang wa-tci-pi (Wi waijyaijg waci])i), literally, "Sun look- 
ing-at they-dance.'' The foUowing are assigned as the reasons for cele- 
brating this dance: During any winter when the people suffer from 
famine or an epidemic, or when they wish to kill any enemy, or they 
desire horses or an abundance of fruits and vegetables during the 
coming summer, different Indians pray mentally to the sun, and each 
one says, "Well, 1 will pray to Wakantanka early in the sunmier." 
Throughout the winter all those men who have made such vows take 
frequent baths in sweat lodges. Each of these devotees or candidates 
invites persims to a feast, on which occasion he joins his guests in 
drinking great quantities of various kinds of herb teas. Then the 
host notifies the guests of liis vow, and from that time forward the 
people treat him with great respect. 

§145. Bides observed bij households. — The members of the households 
of the devotees always abstain from loud talking and from bad acts of 
various kinds. The following rules must be observed in the lodge of 
each devotee : A ])iece of the soil is cut off between the back of the lodge 
and the fireplace, and when virgin earth is reached vermilion is .scat- 
tered over the exposed place. When the men smoke their pipes and 
have burned out all of the tobacco in their pipe bowls, they must not 
throw away the ashes as they would common refuse; they must be 
careful to empty the ashes on the ex])osed earth at the back of the 
lodge. iS^o one ventures to ste]) on that virgin earth, and not even a 
hand is ever stretched toward it. Only the man who expects to par- 
ticipate in the sun dance can empty the ashes there, and after so doing- 
he returns each pipe to its owner. 

§ 14(j. Tlie " U-ma-ne." — "The mellowed earth spa('<',U-uia-ue 
iu Dakota, and called by some peculiar names iu other tribes, 
has never been absent from any religions exercise I have yet 
seen or learned of from the Indians. It represents the unap- 
propriated life or ])ower of the earth, hence man may obtain 
it. The square or oblong, with the four lines standing out, is 
invariably Interpreted to mean the earth or laud with the four 

winds standing' toward it. The cross, whether diagonal or up- 

. , , 1 IT ii ^ -1 J- i, 1! \ Fir;. 189. — The "L -ma-uu " 

right, always symbolizes the lour winds or lour quarters.' ' 

a ' ^ J i syiiiliol. 

Miss Fletcher uses this term, "U-ma-ne,'' to de 
note two things: the mellowed earth s[)ace (probably answering to the 
u-je-;i of the Omaha and Ponka) and the symbol of the eaith and the 
four winds made within that mellowed earth space. A sketch of the 
latter symbol is shown in Fig. 189. (See §§ 112, 155, etc.; also Contr. 
N. A. Ethn., Yol. Vi, — 471-475.) 

' Miss Fletcher, in Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. ni, p. 284, note. 




452 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

§ 147. Bides observed by the devotee.— Bnriug the time of preparation 
the devotee goes hunting, and if he kills a deer or buftalo he cuts up 
the body in a -wakau" manner. lie skins it, but leaves the horns at- 
tached to the skull. He reddens the skin all over, and in the rear of 
the lodge, in the open air, he prepares a bed of wild sage {Artemisia), 
on which he lays the skull. He erects a post, on which he hangs a 
tobacco pouch and a robe that is to be offered as a sacrifice. When 
the devotee takes a meal everything which he touches must be perfectly 
clean. lie uses a new knife, which no one else dares to handle. What- 
ever he cats nnist be prepared in the best possible manner by the other 
members of tlie household. They make for him a new pipe ornamented 
with porcupine work, a new tobacco pouch, and a stick for pushing the 
tobacco down into the bowl, both ornamented in like manner, 

§ 148. The devotee must not go swimming, but he can enter the sweat- 
lodge. There he rubs his body all over with wild sage; he cannot use 
calico or cotton for that purpose. No unclean person of either sex 
nnist go near him. The devotee is prohibited from fighting, even 
should the camp be attacked. He must not act hastily, but at all times 
must he proceed leisurely. He has his regular periods for crying and 
l)raying.' 

§149. All his female kindred make many pairs of moccasins and col- 
lect money and an abundance of all kinds of goods, in order to give 
presents to poor people at the time of the sun dance. Then they can 
make gifts to whomsoever they please, and on that account they will 
win the right to have a child's ears x^ierced. The goods or horses, 
on account of which the child's ears are to be pierced, are reserved 
for that occasion at some other place. The man whose office it will 
be to pierce tlie children's ears has to be notified in advance that 
his services will be required. (See § 205.) 

TRIBES INVITED TO THE SUN-DANCE. 

§150. When the devotees have i^erformed all the preliminary duties 
required of them, messages are sent to all the neighboring tribes, 
i. e., the Omaha, Pawnee Loup, Cheyenne, Eee, Hidatsa, Blackfeet, 
Xez Perce, Winnebago, Yankton, and Santee. The latter part of 
June is fixed upon as the time for the dance. (See §§ 138, 141.) The 
visitors from the different nations begin to come together in the spring, 
each visiting tribe forming its separate camp. Though some of the 
visitors are hereditary enemies, it matters not during the sun-dance; 
they visit one another; they shake hands and form alliances. In this 
manner several Aveeks are spent very pleasantly. 

DISCIPLINE MAINTAINED. 

§151. Policemen arc appointed, and a crier proclaims to each lodge 
tliat at a specified place there is a broad and pleasant prairie where 



• Compare Miss Fletcher, iu Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p. 581. 



DOKSET.] TiUSHOTTEK OX TTIE SUN DAXCE. 453 

all are ex]>ected to pitch their tents. The overseers or masters of 
ceremonies have guns, and their orders are obeyed; for if one diso- 
beys his horses and dogs are killed by the p(dieemeii. This punish- 
ment is called akicita wicaktei)i, or. in common parlance, "soldier- 
killing.'* 

All who join tlie camp nuist erect the upright (or conical) tents, 
as no low rush or mat tents, such as are found among the Osage 
and Winnebago, are allowed iu the camp circle. 

C'AMI'IN'Ci CIltCI.K FoiniKH. 

§152. At length orders are given for all the peojjle to pitch their 
tents in the form of a tribal circle, with an opening to tlie north. ^ 
(See n. XLV.) It takes several days to accomplish this, and then all 
the men and youths are required to take spades and go carefully over 
the whole area within the circle and hll up all the holes and uneven 
places which might cause the horses to stumble and fall. 

MKN SKLECTKI> TO SKFK THF >rYSTF.l;Y TltEK. 

§ 153. Though Bushotter has Mritteu that this work requires several 
days, it is probable, judging froni what follows in his manuscript, 
that only two days are required for such work. For he continues 
thus : 

On the third day some men are selected to go in search of the Can-'.vakan or 
Mystery Tree, out of which they are to form the snn-pole. - These men must be se- 
lected from those ^Yho are known to be brave, men acciuainted with the war path, 
men who have overcome difficulties, men who have been wounded iu battle, men of 
considerable experience. 

§ 154. The men selected to fell the mystery tree ride very swift horses, 
and they decorate their horses and attire themselves just as if they 
were going to battle. They put on their feather war bonnets. They 
race their horses to a hill and then back again. In former days it 
was customary on such occasions for any women who had lost children 
during some previous attack on the camp, to wail often as they ran 
towards the mounted men, and to sing at intervals as they went. But 
that is not the custom at the present day. Three times do the mounted 
men tell of their brave deeds in imitation of the warriors of the olden 
times, and then they undertake to rei)resent their own deeds in panto- 
mime. 

§ 155. On the fourth day, the selected men go to search for the mys- 
tery tree. They return to camj) together, and if they have found a 
suitable tree, they cut out pieces of the soil within the cami)ing circle, 
going down to virgin earth. (See§14().) This exposed earth extends 
over a considerable area. On it they ])lace a species of sweet-smelling 



' Miss Fletcher says, in Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p. 580. "The people camp iu a circle, with 
a large opening at the east. In 1882 over 9.000 Tndian.s were so caiiiijed, 11ii> fliiimeter of tlie circle be- 
ing over tlu-ee-(|uarter.s of a mile wide." 

'Miss Fletclier's aeeouiit (I'roc. .\iii. Asso.-. ,\(U . Sii., p. .'>SL'l iianies I he fonrlli (hiy a.s that on 
which tliey souglit fur tlie sun pole. 



454 A STUDY OF PinilAN CT^LTS. 

grass (i> trailino- variety) and wild sage, on which they lay the buflalo 
skull. 

TENT OI' PREPAHATIO.N. 

§ 150. After this there is set up within the camping circle a good 
tent kuown as the tent of preparation.^ When the managers wish to set 
up the tent of ]»reparation, they borrow tent skins here and there. 
Tart of these tent skins they use for covering the smoke hole, and part 
Mere used as curtains, for when they decorate the candidates they use 
the curtains for shutting them in from the gaze of the people and 
when they finish painting them they throAV down the curtains. 

In the back part of this tent of preparation are placed the buffalo 
skulls, one for each candidate. A new knife which has never been 
used is exposed to smoke. A new ax, too, is reddened and smoked. 

§ 157. Wild sage {Artemisia) is used in A^arious ways prior to and 
during the sun dance. Some of it they spread on the ground to serve 
as couches, and with some they wipe the tears from their faces. They 
fumigate with the plant known as ''caij silsilya," or else they use 
"walipe wastema,'' sweet-smelling leaves. Day after day they fumi- 
gate themselves with ''wacaijga," a sweet smelling grass. They hold 
every object which they use over the smoke of one of these grasses. 
They wear a kind of medicine on their necks, and that keeps them 
from being hungry or thirsty, for occasionally they chew a small quan- 
tity of it. Or if they tie some of this medicine to their feet they do 
not get weary so soon.'^ 

§ 158. When the tent of preparation is erected, there are provided 
for it new tent pins, new sticks for fastening the tent skins together 
above the entrance, and new poles for pushing out the Haps beside 
the smoke liole. These objects and all others, which had to be used, 
are brought into the tent of preparation and fumigated over a tire 
into which the medicine has been dropped. By this time another day 
has been spent. Now all the candidates assemble in the tent of prep- 
aration, each one wearing a buffalo robe with the hair outside. One 
who acts as leader sits in the place of honor at the back part of the 
tent, aud the others sit on either side of him around the fireplace. 
They smoke their injtes. When night comes they select one of the 
songs of the sun dance, in order to rehearse it. Certain men have been 
chosen as singers of the dancing songs, and, when one set of them rest, 
llien^ are others to take their i)laces. The drummers beat the drum 
rapidly, but softly (as the Teton call it, kpaijki)aijyela, the act of 
several drummers hitting in quick succession). 

Three times do they beat the drums in that manner, and then they 
beat it rapidly, as at the beginning of the sun dance. At this juncture, 



'Miss Fletclier (Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, ]). 580) states that "the tent set apart for the con- 
secrating ceremonies, which take place after sunset of the first day, was pitched within the line of tents, 
on the site fomierly assigned to one of the sacred tents." 

'The aiitlior heard about tliis medicine in 1873, fnnn a I'onka cliief, one of the leaders of a dancing 
society. It is a bulbous root, wiiicli -irows near the place where the sun pole is ])lauted. 







!^ 






w^ 






;\7 



4JJ uy^-^ ^^ 




THE SUN-DANCE 



DORSEY.] BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 455 

as many as have Antes— made of the boues of eagles' wings, ornamented 
with porcupine quills, and hung around their necks, with cords similarly 
ornamented, with some eagle down at the tij) ends of the tlutes — blow 




Fio. I'K).— E;iglt!wiiifi rtiite. (From origiiuil, loaned by C'ai>t. J. G. Boiirke, U. S. A.) 

them often and forcibly as they dance. While the drum is beaten 
three times in succession (kpaijkpaijyela, as has been described), all 
the candidates cry aloud (ceya), but when it is beaten the fourth time, 
they cry or wail no longer, but dance and ])low their tlutes or whistles. 

§ 159. When the candidates take their seats in the tent of prepara- 
tion, they select a man to fill the pipe with tobacco. When they wish 
to smoke, this man passes along the line of candidates. He holds the 
pipe with the mouthpiece toward each man. who smokes without 
grasping the pipe stem.' 

When the candidates are allowed to eat, the attendant feeds them. 
J^o one can be loquacious within the tent of preiiaration. If a dog or 
person approaches the tent, the offender is chased away before he can 
reach it. No spectators are allowed to enter the tent. And this regula- 
tion is enforced by blows, whenever anyone attempts to violate it. 

EXPEDITION TO THE .MYSTEKY THEE. 

§ 160. The next morning, which is that of the fifth day, they prepare 
to go after the tree that is to serve as the sun pole.^ The married and 
single men, the boys, and even the women, are all ordered to go horse- 
back. Whoever is able to move rapidly accompanies the party. 
When the chosen ])ersons go to fell the mystery tree they rush on it 
as they would upon a real enemy, just as tradition relates that the 
Omaha and Ponka rushed on their sacred tree. (See §12.)^ Then 
they turn quickly and run from it until they arrive at the other side of 
the hill (nearest to the mystery tree), after which they return to the 
tree.* They tie leaves together very tightly, making a mark of the 
bundle, assaulting it in turn as a foe. 

§ 161. The tree is reached by noon. The persons chosen to fell it 
whisper to one another as they assemble around it. They approach 
some one who has a child, and take hold of him. Then they bring 
robes and other goods which they spread on the ground, and(m the pile 
they seat the child, who is sometimes a small girl, or even a large one. 

'With this compare the Omaha act, uicl'a", in the Ifike Hahr- (huico after the sham fight. Oiu. 
Soc, in 3d. Ann. Bept. Bur. Ethn., p. 29&. 

'See Miss Fletcher, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p, 582. 

^See ^ 28, the Kansa ceremony of tlu^ wain'eh- tjaxe, and Om. Soc. in :id An. Kept. I{>ir. Ethn., pp. 
234, 297. 

'Contr. N. A. Ethn., vol. VI, 47(», 12-15; and Om.Six'., p. 296. 



456 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

FKLLINC THK TREK. 

^< 1()2. Each of the chosen men takes liis tuni in striking the tree 
Every one must first tell hisexph)its, then he brandishes the ax three 
times without striking a blow, after which he strikes the tree once, 
and only once, making a gash. He leaves the ax sticking in the tree, 
whence it is removed by the next man. He who leaves the ax in the 
tree is by this act considered to make a present of a horse to some one. 
As soon as he gives the blow, his father (or some near kinsman) 
approaches and hands him a stick, whereupon the young man returns 
it, asking him to give it to such a one, calling him by name. For 
instance, let us suppose that a young man, Mato cuwi maza, Grizzly 
bear with an Iron Side, re(iuests that his stick be given to Psica 
waijkantuya, or Leaping High. The old man who is employed as the 
crier goes to the camp and sings thus: " Mato cuwi maza i-ya-ha-he+ ! 
Mato cuwi maza i-ya-ha-he+ !" The last word is a sign of a brave deed 
on the part of the donor, and it is so understood by every one. On 
reaching the tent of the other man, the crier says, " Psica waijkantuya 
suijkawakaij waij hiyo u ye+ ! Mato cuwi maza caij-wakaij kaksa ca 
tasuijke waij hiyo u ye+ !" i. e., () Leaping High, a horse is brought to 
you! A horse is brought to you because Mato cuwi inaza has given 
a blow to the mystery tree !" On hearing this, I'siea waijkantuya says, 
''Ha-ye,"or "Thanks!" as he extends his hands with the palms towards 
the crier ; and he brings them down toward the ground and takes the 
stick representing the horse. Then the crier passes along around the 
circle, singing the i^raises of the donor, and naming the man who has 
received the present. 

?163. After all the chosen men have told of their deeds, and have 
performed tlieir parts, the women select a man to speak of wiiat gen- 
erous things they have done, and when he has spoken, the larger 
women who are able to fell trees rise to their feet, and take their turns 
in giving one blow apiece to the tree. By the time that all the women 
have struck the tree it falls, and all |)resent shout and sing. Many 
presents are made, and some of the people wail, making the entire 
forest echo their voices. Then those men who are selected for that 
purpose cut off all the limbs of the tree except the highest one, and 
they do not disturb the tree top. Wherever a branch is cut off they 
rub red paint on the wound. 

; l(i4. They make a- bundle of some wood in imitation of that for 
which they have prayed, and hang it crosswise from the fork of tlie tree. 
Above the bundle they suspend a scarlet blanket, a buffalo robe or a 
Aveasel skin, and under the bundle they fasten two pieces of dried buf- 
falo hide, one being cut in the shajte of a buffalo, and the other in that 
of a man. 

Though Bushotter did not state the circumstance, it is remarkable 
that both the figures have the membram virile rigid. The author learned 
about this from two trustworthy jtersons, who obtaiiu'd all the para- 



DonsEY] BUSHOTTER OX THE ST^N DANCE. 457 

plieriialiii of the sun dauco, and one of them, Capt. J(*lin G. Boiirl<e. 
TJ. S. Army, showed him the ti.yiires of the man and bntfahj used at the 
sun dance at lied Ch»nd Agency, in 1S82. In the former figure, the 
lingam is of abnormal size. The connection between the phallic cult 
and the sun is obvious to the student. (See §^s 19,132,140,155,169,170, 
170). 

THE TREK TAKEN TO (AMI'. 

§ 105. Noonoofthe company dare to touch the sun pole as they take 
it to the camp. Before wagons were available, they made a horse carry 
most of the weight of the pole, part of it being on one side of him and 
part on the other, while the wakaij men chosen for the purpose walked 
on both sides of the horse in order to support the ends of tlie pole. (See 
§ 317.) At the present day, a wagon is used for transporting the sun 
pole to the camp.' While they are on the way no person dares to go 
in advance of the pole, for whoever violates the law is in danger of be- 
ing thrown from his horse and having his neck broken. 

The married men and youths carry leaf shields on their backs, and 
some of the riders make their horses race as far as they are able. Any 
member of the party can appropriate the small branches which have 
been cut from the mystery tree. 

When they reach the camp circle, all of the party who carry branches 
and leaves drop them in the places where they intend erecting their 
respective tents. 

§106. Judging from Mr. Bushotter's first text, the tents are not 
pitched when the people return with the sun pole. But as soon as they 
lay the pole in the place where it is to be erected, the tents are pitched 
again. Then all the objects that are to be attached to the sun pole are 
tied to it, and some of the men take leather straps, such as the women 
use when they carry wood and other burdens, and fasten them to the 
sun pole in order to raise it into position. 

I5AISIXG THE SUN TOLE. 

§ 107. This raising of the sun pole seems to be symbolic of tlie four 
winds, the tatuye topa, or "the four quarters of the heavens,'' as Dr. 
Eiggs translates the Dakota term. Those who assist in raising the 
sun pole nuTst be men who have distinguished themselves. Tliey raise 
the pole a short distance from the grouiul, and tlien thej^ shout, making 
an indistinct sound; they rest awhile and pull it a little higher, shout- 
ing again; resting a second time, they renew their eflbrts, pulling it 
higher still. They shout tlie third time, rest again, and at tlu; fourth 
l)ull the pole is ]>erpendicular. Then the men around the camping cir- 
cle tire guns, making the horses flee. Those who raised tlie pole have 
a new spade, and they use it one after another in throwing a sufficient 
quantity of earth around the base of the pole, pressing the earth down 
firmly in order to steady the pole. 



'Miss Fletcher states that the sun pole is carried to the camp 07i a litter of stielcs, ami must ;iot be 
hantlled or stepped over. Op. eit.. p. 582. 



458 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

BUILDING OF DANCING LODGE. 

§ 108. Next follows tlie building of the dancing lodge. (See PI. XLVI. 
and § 31 7.) Forked posts are set in the ground in two concentric circles. 
Those posts forming the circle nearer the sun pole are a few feet higher 
than the posts in the outer circle, thus making a slant sufficient for a 
roof. From the inner circle of posts to the sun pole there is no roof, as 
the dancers who stand near the pole must see the sun and moon. From 
each forked post to the next one in the same circle is laid a tent pole; 
and on the two series of these horizontal tent-poles are placed the sap- 
lings or poles forming the roof. In constructing the wall of the dancing 
lodge they use the leaf shields, and probably some poles or branches 
of trees, the shields and leaves stuck in the wall here and there, in 
no regular order, leaving interstices through which the spectators can 
peep at the dancers. A very Avide entrance is made, through which 
can be taken a horse, as well as the numerous offerings brought to be 
given away to the poor. Then they smoke the pipe, as in that manner 
they think that they can induce their Great Mysterious One to smoke. 

§169. All liaving been made ready, the aged men and the chief men 
of the camp kick off their leggins and moccasins, and as many as have 
pistols take them to the dancing lodge, around the interior of which 
they perform a dance. As they pass around the sun pole, all shoot at 
once at the objects suspended from the pole (§ K)!), knocking them aside 
suddenly. Leaving the dancing lodge, they dance around the interior 
of the camping circle till they reach their respective tents. 



THE Urt'ITA. 



§ 170. This is followed by the " uucdta." Each man ties up the tail of 
his horse and dresses himself in his best attire. When they are ready, 
they proceed two abreast around the interior of the camping circle, 
shooting into the ground as they pass along, and filling the entire 
area with smoke. There are so many of them that they extend almost 
around the entire circle. If any of the riders are thrown from their 
horses as they dash along, the others jiay no attention to them, but step 
over them, regarding nothing but the center of the camping circle. 
(See PL XLv.) 

5171. By this time it is nearly sunset. The young men and young 
women mount horses and proceed in pairs, a young mau beside a young- 
woman, singing as they pass slowly around the circle. The young men 
sing first, and the young women respond, acting as a chorus. That 
night the tent of preparation is again erected. The candidates dance 
there. The peo])le gaze towards that tent, for it is rumored that the 
candidates will march forth from it. 

DECORATION OF CANDIDATES Oil DEVOTEES. 

§ 172. The candidates spend the night in decorating themselves. Each 
one wears a fine scarlet blanket arranged as a skirt and with a good 



Bureau of EThnolqOy. 



V 




< 



Hf^ 




THE DAN 



Eleventh Annual Report. Plate XLVl 




~f-~t 



N 









i 



u 



n 





■< 



BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 



459 



belt fastened around liis ^^'aist, From the waist u}) lie is nude, and on 
his chest he paints some design, Sometimes the design is a sunflower. 
A man can paint the designs referring to tlie brave deccls of his father, 
his mother's l)rother, or of some other kinsman, if lie liiinsolf has done 
nothing worthy of commemoration. If a man has killtHl an animal, he 
can paint the sign of tlio animal on his chest, and some hold between 
their lips the tails of animals, signifying that they have scalped their 
enemies. Others show by their designs that they have stolen horses 
from enemies. 

§ 173, Each one allows his hair to hang loosely down his back. Some 
wear head-dresses consisting of the skins of buffalo heads Avith the horns 
attached. Others wear eagle war-bonnets. Each candidate wears a 
buffalo robe with the thick hair outside. He fills his pipe, which is a new 
one ornamented with porcupine work, and he holds it with the stem 
l)<)inting in front of him. Tims do all the candidates appear as they 
come out of the tent of preparation. As they march to the dancing lodge 
the leader goes first, the others march abreast alter him. He who acts 
as leader carries a bufialo sknll painted red. All cry as they march, 
and on the way they are joined by a woman who takes the place of her 
"hakata," or cousin; and sometimes they are Joined by a horse that is 
highly prized by his owner. 

OFKEUINCiS OF CANDIDATKS. 

§ 174. The first time that they emerge from the tent where they sleep 
they march around it four times, and they make offerings of four blank- 
ets, which they susi)end from as many posts set up in the form of a 
square within which the tent is erected. When they proceed from the 
tent of preparation to the dancing lodge, one of their servants sets up 




j.'i;. liii. — The tent of in-eparatiou and the dancinji lodge. 

sticks at intervals, forming a- straight line from the tent of preparation 
to the dancing Lnlge, and on these sticks he places their offerings of 
l)lankets and tobacco pouches. After the gifts are thus suspended, none 
of the spectators can cross the line of sticks. 

§ 175. Oapt. J. O. Bonrke has a wand that was used by one of the 
heralds, or criers, daring the sun dance. It was about 5 feet long, and 
was decorated with beadwork and a tnft of horse hair at the superior 
extremity. Whenever the crier raised this wand the people fell back, 
leaving an open space of the i-equired area. 



4G0 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

CEREMOXIKS AT THE DANCING LODGE. 

§ 170. On reaeliin.ii- the dancing- lodge, the candidates pass slowly 
around tl.e exterior, starting at the left side of the lodge and turning 
towards the right. They do this four times and then enter the lodge. 
They stretch their hands towards the four quarters of the heavens as 
they walk around the interior of the lodge. They sit down at the back 
part of the lodge, and then they sing. 

Between them and the pole they cut out the soil in the shape of a 
lialf moon, going down to virgin earth, and on this bare spot they place 
all the buffalo skulls. After this they paint themselves anew with red 
paint, on completing which they are lifted to their feet by their attend- 
ants. Again they walk around the interior of the lodge, stretching out 
their hands towards the four quarters of the heavens. 

§ 177. A s<mg of the sun dance is started by one of the candidates, 
and the others join him, one after another, until all are singing. Mean- 
while the men who have been selected for the purpose redden their en- 
tire hands, and it devolves on them to dance without touching any- 
thing, such as the withes connected with the sun pole or the buffalo 
skulls; all that they are required to do is to extend their hands towards 
the sun, with the i^alms turned from them. 

At this time all the candidates are raised again to their feet, and 
brought to the back part of the lodge, where they are placed in a row. 
They soon begin to cry, and they are joined by the woman who has 
taken the place of her elder brother. 

§ 178. It is customary, when a man is too poor to take part himself 
in the sun dance, for a female relation to take his place, if such a 
woman pities him. She suffers as the male candidates do, except in 
one resi)ect — her flesh is not scaritied. This woman wears a buckskin 
skirt, and she lets her hair fall loosely down her back. She carries the 
pipe of her brother or kinsman in whose place she is dancing. 

§ 171). As the drums beat, the candidates dance and blow their 
flutes. The woman stands, dancing slowly, with her head bent down- 
ward, but with shoulders erect, and she is shaking her head and body 
by bending her knees often without raising her feet from the ground. 
She abstains from food ami drink, just as her brother or kinsman would 
have done had he particii)ated in the dance. In fact, all the candi- 
dates have to fast from the time that the sun pole is cut, and from that 
time they cr^' and dance at intervals. 

§ 180. If the owner of a horse decides that his steed must take part 
in t he dance, he ties the horse to one of the thongs fastened to the sun- 
pole, and stands near the animal. Whenever he wishes he approaches 
tlic horse, takes him by the lower jaw as he stands and cries, and then 
he, too, joins in the dance. This horse is decorated in the finest man- 
ner; he is painted red, his tail is rolled up into a bundle and tied to- 
gether, and he wears featliers in the tail and forelock. 

§ 181. (\(ti(li(l<(tc.s scarified. When the time comes for scarifving the 



Bureau of tthn^ 



Eleventh Annual Report. Plate XLVi 






\ OTEV 



,ZIN 



°*'"^^^] BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 461 

candidates,' if one wishes to dance in the manner abont to be described 
be is made to stand between four posts arranged in the form of a 
square, and his flesli on his back being scarified in two phices, thongs 
are run through them and fastened to them and to the posts behind 
him. His chest is also scaritted in two places, thongs are inserted and 
tied, and then fastened to the two posts in front of him (sec LM. xlvii, 1, 
Okaska nazin, or "He stands fastened to" or " within"), liushotter 
says nothing about the skewers used in torturing the dancers; but 
Capt. Bourke obtained three ornamental ones which liad been run 
through the wounds of some of the devotees, in order to be stained with 
blood and kept thereafter as souvenirs of the bravery of the dancers. 
Besides these were the regular skewers which Avere thrust horizontally 
through the flesh; and to the eiids of these skewers were fastened the 
thongs that were secured by the opposite ends to the sun pole. The 
last dance allowed by the Government was in 1883, and it would be 
difficult now to lind any of these skewers. (See § 1^04.) 

Another man has his back scaritied and a thong inserted, from which 
a buffalo skull is suspended, as shown in PI. xlvti, L*, Pte-pa kin waci, or 
^'He dances carrying a buffalo skull on his back." He dances thus, 
thinking that the weight of the skull will soon cause the thong to break 
through the flesh. The blood runs in stripes down his back. 

§ 182. Another man decides to be fastened to the sun pole. For the 
use of such dancers there are eight leather thongs hanging down from 
the pole, being fastened to the pole at a point about midway from the 
top. For each man tied to the pole it is the rule to take two of the 
thongs and run them through his flesh after the holes are made with 
the knife (see PI. xlviii). After the thongs are fastened to him, the 
dancer is required to look upward. When the candidate is a short man, 
his back is scarified and his attendants push him up high enough from 
the ground for the thongs to be inserted and tied. In this case the 
weight of the man stretches the skin where the thongs are tied, and 
for a long time he remains there without falling (see PI. xlix). 

§ 183. A very long time ago it happened that the friends ol' such a 
short man pitied him, so they gave a horse to another man, whom thev 
directed to release their friend by pulling at the thongs until they 
broke out. So the other man approached the dancer, telling of his own 
deeds. He grasped the short man around tlie body, threw himself vio- 
lently to the ground, breaking off" the thong, which flew upward, and 
bringing the short man to the ground. Then the kindred of the short 
man brought presents of calico or moccasins and another horse, with 
other property, and they made the old women of the camp scramble 
for the possession of the gifts. The horse was given away by the act 
called "Kahol yeyapi,"or "They threw it off' suddenly." The father 
of the dancer stood at the entrance of his tent, holding a stick m his 
hand. He threw the stick into the air, and the bystan(Jers struggled for 

'See Miss Fletcher's account, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1882, p. 584. 



462 A STL^DY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

its possession. Whoever grasped the stick, and succeeded in holding 
it, won the horse. If a forked stick is thrown up and caught it entitles 
the holder to a mare and her colt. 

§ 184. When a young man has his flesh pierced for him, if he is 
beloved by his female relations, they furnish him with many objects dec- 
orated with porcupine quills, and these objects are suspended from the 
pierced places of his flesh, tliis being considered as a mark of respect 
shown by the women to their kinsman. Very often the women by such 
acts deprive themselves of all their property. 

§185. Pieces of flesh offered. — When the candidates have their flesh 
pierced for the insertion of the thongs, a number of men who do not 
intend to dance approach the sun pole and take seats near it. With a 
new knife small pieces of flesh are cut out in a row from the shoulders 
of each of these men, who hold up the pieces of their own flesh, show- 
ing them to the pole. They also cover the base of the pole with earth. 
If some of the women desire to offer pieces of their flesh, they come and 
do so. 

§ 186. Very soon after this the people who are outside of the dancing 
lodge sing a song in praise of the devotees of all kinds, and the old 
women are walking about with their clothing and hair in disorder, the 
garments flapping up and down as they dance. The attendants hold 
the pipes for the candidates to smoke, and they decorate them anew. 
After they decorate them, the dancing is resumed. By this time it is 
past noon, so the girls and boys whose ears are to be pierced are col- 
lected in one place, and presents are given to all the poor people.^ 
After the children's ears have been pierced, the attendants make the 
candidates rise again and continue the dance. 

§ 187. Torture of oivner of horse. — The man whose horse has taken 
part in the dance is tied to the tail of his horse, and his chest is pierced 
in two places and fastened by thongs to the suu pole. Some of the 
attendants whip the horse several times, making him dart away from the 
pole, thereby releasing the man, as the thongs are broken by the sud- 
den strain (see §29). 

§ 188. The devotees dance through the night, and when it is nearly 
midnight they rest. Beginning at the left side of the dancing lodge, 
every devotee stops and cries at each post until he makes the circuit 
of the lodge. By this time it is midnight, so the attendants make them 
face about and stand looking towards the east, just as in the afternoon 
they had made them face the west. 

END OF THE DANCE. 

§ 189. At sunrise they stop dancing and they leave the dancing 
lodge. As they come forth, they pass out by the right side, aud march 
four times around the exterior of the lodge. After which they proceed 



' Miss Fletcher, op. cit., p. 583. 



DORPEY.i BUSHOTTER ON THE SUN DANCE. 463 

directly to the lodge of prepsiration, around which they march four 
times i)rior to entering it. 

§ 100. When the devotees emerge from the dancing lodge, one of 
their attendants places more gifts on the line of sticks between the two 
lodges, and after tlie procession has moved on there is considerable 
disputing among the small boys of the camp for the ])oscssion of the 
gifts. 

§ 191. After leaving the lodgt; of preparation, the exhausted devotees 
are taken back to their own tents, where each one is given four sips 
of water and a small piece of food, and by the time that he gets accus- 
tomed to food after his long fast, he eats what he i)leases, enters the 
sweat lodge, rubs himself with the wild sage, and thenceforward he is 
regarded as liaving peribrmed his vow. 

§ 192. The spectators scramble for the possession of the blankets and 
long i)leces of calico left as sacrifices at the dancing lodge, and some of 
them climb to the top of tlie sun i)ole and remove the objects fastened 
there. The sun pole is allowed to remain in its place. The author saw 
a sun pole at Ponka Agency, then in Dakota, in 1871. It had been there 
for some time, and it remained till it was blown down by a high wind. 

At the conclusion of the dance the camp breaks uj) and the visitors 
return to their respective homes. 

§ 193 All who participate in the dance nuist act according to rule for if 
one slights part of the rites they think that he is in great danger. 
The men selected as overseers or managers are the i)ersons who act as 
the attendants of the candidates. 

The candidates think that all tlieir devotions are i)leasing to the sun. 
As they dance, they pray mentally, " Please pity me ! Bring to pass all 
the things which I desire ! " 

INTKIISIVE DANCES. 

§ 194. During the sun dance, other dances — intrusive dances, as Lynd 
terms them — are going on in the camp. Among these are the follow- 
ing: The Mandan dance, performed by the Oaijte tiijza okolakiciye, or 
the Society of the Stout-hearted Ones ; the Wakaij wacipi or mystery 
dance, the Pezi mignaka wacipi or the dance of those wearing grass in 
their belts, the ghost dance, the buffalo dance, and the Omaha kiyotag 
a-i, popularly called the grass dance. 

§ 195. When a man Joins the Mandan dance as a leader, he wears a 
feather headdress of owl feathers, a scarf, called '' Waijzi-icaske," is 
worn around his neck and hangs down his back, and he carries a 
pipe, a bow, and arrows. In the Pezi mignaka, wacipi, both young 
men and young women take part. All these dances are held out- 
side the lodge of the sun dance, within Avhich lodge only the one 
dance can be performed. The grass dance is named after the Omaha 
tribe. As many men as are able to participate in that dance march 
abreast until they reach the camp of some gens, where they sit 



4G4 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

down facing tlie people whom tliey visit, lieuce the name, meaning, 
" the Omalui reach there and sit down." Then the visitors slug while 
a noise is made by hitting the gronnd with sticks, etc. The singers 
and dancers sit looking at the tents of the gens that they have visited, 
and remain so until property and food are brought out and given to 
them. Then they arise and probably dance. They think that if they 
ask Wakantanka for anything after the conchision of the sun dance 
they will receive it. So they call on him in dilferent songs, thus: "O 
Wakantanka, please pity mel Let me have many horses!" Or, "O 
Wakantanka, please pity me! Let there be plenty of fruits and vegeta- 
bles !" Or, " O Wakantanka, please pity me ! Let me live a long time ! " 

§ 196. During the sun dance they sing about some old woman, calling 
her by name. They can sing about any old woman on such an occasion. 

One of these songs has been given by Mr. Bushotter, but the writer 
must content himself in giving the words without the music. 
" Wiuuij'hca kuij tokiya la huijwo'! He'-ye-ye+ ! 
Yatila kuij' suij'ka wikinicape. He-ye-ye+ ! 
E'-yaya-ha' ya'-ha ya'-ha yo'-Uo he'-ye-ye+ ! 
E'-ya ya-ha' ya'-ha ya'-ha yo'-ho he'-ye-ya !" 

That is: '' Old woman, you who have been mentioned, whither are 
yon going? When they scrambled for the stick representing a horse, 
of course you were on hand ! How brave you are ! " 

They sing this in a high key, and when they cease suddenly, they 
call out, " Ho'wo ! Ho'wo! E'-ya-ha-he+ ! E'-ya-ha-he-f ! " '^ Comeon! 
Come on! Hoiv brave you are! How brave you «»•<?.'" When they have 
said this repeatedly an old woman enters the circle, making them 
laugh by her singing and dancing. 

Thus ends the Bushotter account of the sun dance, which was read 
at a meeting of the Anthropological Society of Washington, May 6, 1890. 

CAPT. BOrKKE ON THE !?rN-I)AXCE. 

§197. After the reading of the paper, Capt. John G. Bourke, U. S. 
Army, remarked that he had seen the sun dance of the Dakota several 
times, and once had enjoyed excellent oiJi^ortunities of taking notes of 
all that occurred under the superintendence of Eed Cloud and other 
medicine men of ])rominence. Capt. Bourke kindly furnished the author 
with the following abstract of his remarks on this subject: 

In June, 1881, at the Ked Cloud Agency, Dakota, there were some twenty-eight 
who w(;nt through the ordeal, one of the number being Pretty Enemy, a jouug 
woman Avho had escaped with her husband from the band of Sitting Bull in British 
North America, and who was going through the dance as a sign of grateful acknowl- 
edgment to the spirits. 

The description of the dance given in the account of Bushotter tallies closely with 
that which took place at the Ked Cloud ceremony, with a few very immaterial ex- 
ceptions due no doubt to local causes. 

vS 198. At Red Cloud, for example, there was not a separate buttalo head for each 
Indian ; there were not more than two, and with them, being placed erect and lean- 
ing against a frame-work made for the purpose, several elaborately decorated pipes, 



Q) 






D'^R^EY] BOURKE ON THE SUN DANCE. 465 

beautiful in all that porcupim> ([uills, l>eatls, and horsehair could supply. Buffaloes 
had atthat time disappeared from the face of the country within reach of that agency, 
and there was also an increasing difficulty in the matter of procuring the pipestone 
from the old quarries over on the Missouri River [sic].' 

§ 199. First, in regard to securing the sacred tree, after the same had been desig- 
nated by the advance party sent out to look for it. The medicine men proclaimed 
to the young warriors that all they Avere now to do was just the same as if they were 
going out to war. When the signal was given, the whfde party dashed off at full 
speed on their ponies, and as soon as we arrived at the tree, there was no small 
amount of singing, as well as of presents given to the poor. 

Next, a band of young men stepped to the front, and each in succession told the 
story of his prowess, each reference to the hilling or wounding of an enemy, or to 
striking coiq), l)eing corroborated by thumping on the skin which served the medicine 
men as a drum. 

^ 200. The first young man approached the sacred tree, swung his l)rand-new ax, 
and cut one gash on the east side; the second followed precisely the same program 
on the south side ; the third, on the west side, and the fourth, on the north side, 
each cutting one gash and uo more. 

§ 201. They were succeeded by a young maiden, against whose personal character, 
it was asserted, not a breath of insinuation could be brought, and she was decked in 
all the finery of a long robe of white antelope skin almost completely covered with 
elks' teeth, as well as with beads. She seized the ax, and, with a few well-directed 
blows, brought the tree to the ground. 

vN 202. In carrying the tree to the camp it was placed upon skids, no one being 
allowed to place a hand upoa the tree itself. Upon reaching the summit of the knoll 
nearest the camp the tree was left in charge of its immediate attendants while the 
rest of the assemblage charged at full speed upon the camp itself. 

^^ 203. ^Yhen the tree had been erected in place, it Avas noticed that each of those 
who were to endure the torture had been proAaded with au esquire, Avhile there Avas 
also a force of men, armed with guns to jireserve order, criers to make i>roclama- 
tions, and heralds and Avater-carriers armed with long staves tipped with bead- work 
and horse-hair. These water-carriers did not carry water for the men attached to 
the tree, they were not allowed to drink, but if. they happened to faint away the 
medicine men Avould take a mouthful of water a])iece and 8))ray it upon the body 
of the patient, producing coldness by the CA-aporation of the Avater. 

^> 204. All the Indians cm that occasion Avere attached to the tree itself by long 
ropes of hair or by thongs, fastened to skewers run horizontally under the desh. (See 
SS 181.) 

^ 205. The young Avoman, I'retty Enemy, was not tied up to the tree, but she danced 
with the others, and had her arms scarified from the shoulders to tlie elbows. All 
this scarification Avas done by a medicine man, who also slit the ear of the babies 
l>oru since the last sun dance. 

§206. The young meu Avere scarified in the following manner: Their attendants, 
whom I haA'e called esquires, seized and laid them on a bed of some sagebrush at the 
foot of the sacred tree. A short address Avas made l>y one of the medicine men ; then 
another, taking up as much of the skin of the breast under the nipple of each dancer 
as could be held between his thumb and forefinger, cut»a slit the length of the 
thumb, and inserted a skewer tf> which a roi)e was tastened, the other end of the 
rope being tied to the tree. 

§ 207. The young meu placed eagle pipes, as they were called, in their moutlis. 
These pipes were flutes Avhich were made each from one of the bones in an eaglet's 
wing. They had to be sounded all tlie time the young man was dancing. This d.iuc- 
ing was done in the manner of a buck jump, the body and legs being stiff and all 



' Till' fanions pipestone quarry was near the Big Sious river in Miiine.sota. 
11 ETH 30 



466 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

movement being upon the tips of the toes. The dancers kept looking at the sun, 
and either dropi)ed the hands to the sides in the military position of " attention," 
with the palms to the front, or else held them upward and outward at an angle of 
45 degrees, with the fingers spread apart, and inclined towards the sun. 

vS 208. When laid on the couch of sagebrush before spoken of, each young man 
covered his face with his hands and wailed. I was careful to examine each one, 
and saw that this wailing was a strictly ceremonial aftair unaccompanied by tears, 

^^209. Before ap])roaching the tree the victims were naked, with the exception of 
blue cloth petticoats and buffalo robes worn with the fur outside, giving them the 
appearance of monks of the olden time. The buffalo robes were, of course, thrown 
off' when the young meu were laid on the sagebrush prejiaratory to the scarifica- 
tion. One young man was unable to tear himself loose, and he remained tied up to 
the tree for an hour and seven minutes by my watch. He fainted four times. The 
medicine man put into his mouth some of the small red, bitter, salty seeds of the 
Didamara, while the women threw costly robes, blankets, articles of beadwork and 
quillwork, and others of the skin of the elk and antelope upon the rope attaching 
him to the tree, in the hope of breaking him loose. The articles thus attached to the 
rope were taken away by the poor for whom they were given. There was any 
amount of this giving of presents at all stages of the dance, but especially at this 
time, and the criers were calling without ceasing, " So and so has done well. He is 
not afraid to look the poor women and children in the face ! C'ome up some more of 
you people ! Do not be ashamed to give ! Let all the people see how generous you 
are!" or words to that effect. (I had to rely upon my interpreter, who was reputed 
to be the best and most trustworthy at the agency). 

SS210. One of the prime movers in the organization of this particular dance, Kocky 
Bear, at the last moment, for some particular reason, decided not to go through the 
terrible ordeal. He explaiued his reasons to the tribe, and was excused. He gave 
presents with a lavish hand, and it was understood that on some subsequent occasion 
he would finish the dance. There was no sign of dissatisfaction with his course, and 
everyone seemed to be on the best of terms with him. All through the ceremony 
there was much singing by the women and drumming by the medicine men, and a 
feast of stewed dog, which tastes very much like young mutton, was served with 
boiled wild turnips. 

§ 211, By a comparison of the accounts of Miss Fletcher, Capt. 
Bouike, and Bushotter it will be noticed that while there are several 
points of disagreement which, as Capt. Bourke remarks, are "due no 
doubt to local causes, " the accounts are in substantial agreement. Miss 
Fletcher says that the opening of the camp circle was toward the east; 
but Bushotter gives it as toward the jjortli. She states that the tent 
of preparation was erected on the first day after sunset; but Bushotter 
says it was set uj) on the fourth day. She represents the selection 
of the men who go to seek the tree, the departure to fetch the tree, 
the felling of the tree, the bringing it and setting it up within the 
camp circle as all taking place on the fourth day. Bushotter states 
that the men were selected on the third day ; they went to seek the tree 
on the fourth day; they went to fell the tree on the fifth day, and on the 
same day they brought it to the camp and set it in place. Capt. Bourke 
saw four meu and one girl em}»loyed in felling the tree. Miss Fletcher 
mentions that five men and three girls did this in 1882; but Bushotter 
recorded that several men and women took part in this performance. 
The ears of the children were pieced on the fourth day after the raising 



°°^'^''^ ASTRONOMICAL LORE. 4C7 

Of the sun pole, aeeordino- to Miss Fletcher; but Bushotter says that 
this did not occur till after the devotees had been scarified and fast- 
ened to the pole and posts, on the sixth day. Bushotter agrees with 
Miss Fletcher in saying that on tlie sixth day the eartli was '^ mellowed " 
the devotees scarified, and they danced with the thongs fastened to 
• the pole, etc., and attached to tlie skewers running under their flesh. 

BEKDACHES. 

§ 212. These unfortunate beings, who have been referred to as mi»quga 
and mi"qnge in Chapter in (§ 30), are called wiijkta by the Santee and 
Yankton Dakota, and wiijkte by the Teton. They dress as women and 
act in all respects as women do, though they are really men. The 
terms for sodomy, wiijktai)i and wiijktepi, are significant, and go to 
prove that the berdaches should not be called hermaphrodites. It is 
probable that the Dakota regard the moon as influencing these people 
(See §353.) ^ 

ASTRONOMICAL LORE. 

§ 213. Ho-ke-wii)-la is a man who stands in the moon with out- 
stretched arms. His name is said to mean Turtle Man. When the 
Teton see a short man with a large body and legs they generally call 
him " Ho-ke-la, " after the man in the moon. 

The Teton do not like to gaze at the moon, because at some past 
time a woman, who was carrying a child on her back, gazed a long 
time at the moon, till she became very weak and fell senseless. 

^o Teton dare look at the stars and count even ^' one'' mentally. For 
one is sure to die if he begin to count the stars and desist before finish- 
ing. They are also afraid to point at a rainbow with the index finger, 
though they can point at it with the lips or elbow. Should one forget, 
and point with the index finger, ttie bystanders laugh at him, saying, 
" By and by, O friend, when your finger becomes large and round, let 
us have it for a ball bat." 

DAY AND NIGHT. 

§ 214. One of Bushotter's Teton texts reads thus: 

Indians are often singing "The day and night are mysterious" or "wakai]." 
They do so for the following reasons : While the day lasts a man is able to do many 
wonderful things at different times, and he kills so many animals, including men, 
and sometimes he receives presents, and besides he is able to see all things. But he 
does not fully understand what the day is. nor does he know what makes the light. 
Though the man can do various things during the day, he docs not know who makes 
or causes the light. Therefore he believes that it was not made by hand, i. e., that no 
human being makes the day give liglit. Therefore the Indians say that the day is 
" wakar)." They do not know^ who causes all these things, yet they know that there 
is some one thing having power, and that this thing does it. In their opinion, that 
is the sun. So they pray to the sun; and they respect both the day and the sun, 
making them "wakai)." On that account they usually sing some songs about them. 
Then they say that the night is "wakaij." When it is night, there are ghosts and 
many fearful objects, so they regard the night as " wakaij," and pray to it. 



468 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CUTS. 

THE DAWN. 

§ 215. When Bu.sliotter's younger brother was sick on one occasion 
he was made to pray to Anpao, The Dawn. The tent skins were thrown 
back I'rnni tlio entrance and the sick boy was held up with the palms 
of his hands extended towards the light, while he repeated this prayer: 
"Wakaij'taijka, uij'simala ye! Ti^haij wauij' kte," i. e., "O Great Mys- 
terious One, please pity me! Let me live a long time!" Then the 
l»atient was laid back on his couch. While the sick boy prayed a 
blanket was held up, and the next morning it was hung from the top 
of the tent. When the invalid recovered the blanket and a tobacco 
pouch were taken to a hill and left there as sacritices. The boy got 
well, and the people believed that some mysterious power had cured 

him. 

WEATHER SPIRIT. 

§ 210. The Teton say that a giant, called Waziya, knows when there 
is to be a change of weather. When he travels his footprints are 
large enough for several Indians to stand while they are abreast; and 
his strides are far apart, for at one step he can go over a hill. When 
it is cold the people say, " Waziya has returned." They used to pray 
to him, ))ut when they found tliat he did not heed them they desisted. 
When warm weather is to follow Waziya wraps himself in a thick 
robe, and when it is to be cold he goes nude. The members of the 
Ileyoka or Anti-natural Society love the acts of Waziya; so they 
imitate him in always saying or doing the opposite of what might be 
expected under the circumstances. Riggs says,' " Waziya, the god of 
the north, and Itokaga, the god of the south, are ever in conflict and 
each in turn is victorious." 

HEYOKA. 

§ 217. Waziya and Heyoka are not fully differentiated. Heyoka, 
according to Kiggs,^ is "the autinatural god." He is said to exist in 
four varieties, all of whi(;h have the forms of small men, but all their 
desires and experiences are contrary to nature. In the winter they 
stand on the open prairie Avithout clothing ; in the summer they sit on 
knolls wrapped in buffalo robes, and yet they are freezing. Each of 
them has in his hands and on his shoulders a bow and arrows, rattles, 
and a drum. All these are surcharged with lightning, and his drum- 
stick is a little Wakiuyan. The high mounds of the prairies are the 
y)laces of his abode. He presides over the land of dreams, and that is 
why dreams are so fantastic. 

§ 218. In speaking of the Heyoka gods. Pond says:^ 

Like the Wakiuyan, there are four varieties of tbeni, all of which assume in sub- 
stance the human form, but it would bo unnecessarily tedious to note the differences 

' Conoeniing Dakota Beliofa, in Proc. Amer. Philol. Assoc, 3d An. Sessiou, 1872, p. 5 

•'Tlicofjoiiy of the Sioux, ]). 269. 

^Miiin. nist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 2, p. 44. 



DOR5EY.1 THPJ HEYOKA G(1DS. 469 

of form. <'S]>ecially as the dirt'erenccs arc uuimpoitant. They are said to be armed 
with the bow and arnnvs, and Avith deer-hoof rattles, whieh things are charged Avith 
electricity. One of the varieties carries a drum, -which is also charged with the same 
fluid. For a drumstick he holds a small Wakinyan god by the tail, striking on the 
drum with the beak of the god. This would seem to us to be an unfortunate posi- 
tion for a god, but it must be remembered that it is " wakan," and the more absurd 
a thing is, the more "wakan." 

^3 219. One of these gods in some respects answers to tlie wliirlwind zephyr of 
Greek mythology. It is the gentle whirlwind which is sometimes visible in the del- 
icate waving of the tall grass of the prairie.' 

By virtue of their medicine and tonwan powers the I feyoka render aid to such 
men as revere them, in the chase, or by intlicting and healing diseases, especially 
those resulting from the gratification of their libidinous passions. 

IIKVOKA FKASr. 

§ 220. Lyiul gives an aoeouiit of the Heyoka feast. He says: ^ 
They assemble in a lodge, wearing tall, conical hats, being nearly naked, and painted 
in a strange style. Upon the fire is placed a huge kettle full of meat, and they re- 
main seated around the fire smoking until the water in the kettle begins to boil, 
which is the signal for the dance to begin. They dance and sing around it excitedly, 
plunging their hands into the boiling water, and seizing large pieces of hot meat, 
which they devour at once. The scalding water is thrown over their backs and legs, 
at which they never wince, complaining that it is cold. Their skin is first deadened, 
as I am creditably informed, by rubbing with a certain grass ; and they do not in real- 
ity experience any uneasiness from the boiling water — a fact which gives their per- 
formances great mystery in the eyes of the uninitiated. 

§ 221. Dr. Briutou lias coiifoiuided the Heyoka m ith the Wakiiiyau. 
The two are distinct classes of powers, thougii there is some connection 
between them, as may be inferred from tlie following stories in the Bnsh- 
otter collection. 

§ 222. No Indian belonging- to the Heyoka Society ever tells of his 
own personal mystery. Such tilings are '• wakaij," and not even one 
man can be induced to sing the Heyoka songs upon an ordinary occa- 
sion; because if they sing one of those scmgs except at the proper time 
they say that the Thunder-beings would kill the entire households of 
the offenders. Therefore they object to singing the Heyoka songs and 
they do not like to speak about them. 

.STOKY OK A IIKYOKA MAX. 

§223. It is said that the people of the olden times knew when they 
were about to die, and they used to dream about their deaths and how 
they would be when the time drew near. One of those men said, 
" When the first thunder is heard next spring. I and my hoi-se shall die." 

For that reason his kindred were weeping from time to time, this man 
who had dreamed of his death decorated the legs of his horse by moist- 
ening light gray clay and drawing zigzag lines down the legs. In like 
manner he deeorated the neck and back of the horse, and hemadesim- 

• Compare the !Ma"na"lii"(l je sub-gens of the E.-insa tribe, and part of the wind gens, as the jja'ze 
gens of the f)maha, Kausa and Osage may be associated with tlio Takuskai)!ikai) of the Dakota. 
*Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. ll, pt. 2, pp. 70, 71. 



470 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

ilar lines on his own arnis. Then he woukl walk about the prairie near 
the camp, singinji- and holding a pipe with the stem pointing toward 
the sky. 

When the leaves opened out in the following spring, the first thun- 
dercloud was seen. Then the man said, '^ Ho, this is the day on which 
I am to die! " So he tied u]) his horse's tail in a rounded form, put a 
piece of scarlet blanket around the animaFs neck, and spread a fine 
blanket over his back, as a saddlecloth, with the ends trailing along the 
ground. He painted himself and his horse just as he had been doing 
formerly, and, taking the pii)e, he walked round and round at some dis- 
tance from the eami», pointing the pipestem towards the clouds as he 
sang the Heyoka songs. The following is given as a song of the human 
Heyoka man, but it is said to have been sung originally by the mys- 
terious and superhuman Heyoka in the thundercloud: 

Ko-la, o-ya-te kin, ko la, wan-ni-yayg u-pe e-yehe-f! 
Ko-la, o-ya-te, kiu, ko-la, wau-ni-yayg u-pe e-ye lie-|- ! 
Ko-la, lo-wai] hi-bu we ! 
Ko-la, ce-ya hi-bu we ! 
O-ya-te way-ma-ya-ka-pi ye. 
He-lie-be ! 
Ta-minj-ka sui kuij e-ye-ye he+ ! 

In this song, "oyate" means the Thunder-beings; "kola," the He- 
yoka men here on earth, whom the Thunder-beings threatened to kill; 
" oyate waijmayakapi," ordinary Indians who are not wakan ; "He-he-he ! 
tamuijka sni kuij," i. e., "Alas! I hate to leave them (living Indians)," 
means that the singer expects to be killed by the Thunder-beings. 

The whole song may be rendered freely thus : 

My friends, the people are coming to see you ! 
My frieiuls, the people are coming to see you! 
My friends, he sings as he comes hither I 
# My friends, he cries as he comes hither! 
You people on earth behold me while you may ! 
Alas ! alas ! alas I 
I hate to leave my own people ! 

On the day referred to the Heyoka man had not been absent very 
long from the camp when a high wind arose, and the rain was so plenti- 
ful that a person could not see very far. Then the Thunder -beings 
looked (i. e., there was lightning) and they roared; but still the man 
and his horse continued walking about over there in sight of the camp. 
By and by there was a very sudden sound as if the trees had been 
struck, and all the people were much frightened, and they thought 
that the Thunder-beings had killed them. Some of the women and 
children fainted from fear, and the men sat holding them up. Some 
of the people thought that they saw many stars, and there seemed to 
be the sound, "Tui}+ I" in the ears of each person. 

VVlien the storm liad lasted a long time, the Thunder-beings were 
departing slowly, amid considerable loud roaring. When it was all over 
the people ventured forth from their lodges. Behold, the man and his 



DOKSEY.i lYA AND IKTO. 471 

horse bad been killed by the Tbiiuder-beings, so his relations were cry- 
ing- ere they reached the scene of the disaster. 

The horse had been burnt in the very places where the man had deco- 
rated him, and his sinews had been shriveled by the heat, so he lay 
with each limb stretched out stiff. The man, too, had been burnt in 
the very idaces where he had painted himself. The grass all around 
appeared as if the Thunder-beings had dragged each body along, for it 
was pushed partly down on all sides. So the people reached there and 
beheld the bodies. 

As the men in former days used to know events beforehand, as has 
just been told, it has long been the rule for no one to reveal his per- 
sonal mystery, which he regards as ^'wakan." 

IIEYOKA WOMEN. 

§ 224. Bushotter gave the following account of a female Heyoka who 
was killed by lightning: 

A certain -woman whom I saw after she bad l>een killed by ligbtniuy belonged to 
the Heyoka Society. When she walked, she carried a pipe with the nionthi)iece 
pointing upward, as she thought that the Thunder-beings would put the mouth- 
piece into their mouths, though the act would immediately cause her death. 

$ 225. "Women used to dream about the Thunder-beings, just as the men did, and 
in those dreams the Heyoka man or woman made promises to the Thunder-beings. 
If the dreamers kept their promises, it was thought that the Thunder-beings helped 
them to obtain whatever things they desired; but if they broke their promises, they 
were sure to be killed by the Thunder-l»eings during some storm. For this reason 
the Heyoka members worshiped the Thunder-beings, whom they honored, speaking 
of them as wakan.'' 

§ 226. Some of the women sing, and some do not ; bnt all let their hair 
hang loosely down their backs, and their dresses consist of a kind of 
cloth or a robe sewed down the middle of the back. Sometimes the cloth 
is all blue, at other times half is red and half is blue. Some times 
there is beadwork on the dress. Even the Heyoka women wear the 
long red cloth trailing on the ground before and behind them, in imita- 
tion of the young dandies of the tribe. 

lYA, THE GOD OF GLUTTONY. 

§ 227. Lynd speaks of the '' vindictive lya " as driving the hunters 
" back from the hunt to the desolation of their lodges.^ And Eiggs has 
written -^ 

A people who feast themselves so abundantly as the Dakotas do, when food is plenty, 
would necessarily imagine a god of gluttony. He is represented as extremely ugly, 
and is called E-ya. He has the power to twist and distort the human face, and the 
women still their crying children by telling them that \\w E-ya will catch them. 

IKTO, IKTOMI, OR UNKTOMI. 

§ 228. Ikto or Iktomi (in the Teton dialect) or Unktomi (in the San- 



'Miiiu. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. il, pt. 2, p. 67. ^xbeogony of the Sioux, p. 270. 



472 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTfe. 

tee) are the names now given to the spider by the Dakota; but the 
names once belonged to a mythical character, who resembles in many 
respects the Ictinike of the Omaha and Ponka, and the Ictcihke of the 
Iowa, Oto, and Missouri tribes. ^'Ikto," say the Teton, " was the tirst 
being who attained maturity in this world. He is more cunning- than 
human beings. He it was who named all jjeople and animals, and he 
was the first to use human speech. Some call him the Waunca or 
Mocker, a name now applied to the monkey.^ If we see auy peculiar 
animals at any place, we knew that Iktomi made them so. All the 
animals are his kindred, and they are obliged to act just as he com- 
manded them at the beginning." 

§ 229. Ill enumerating the powers that delight in working ill to the 
Indians, Lynd mentions Unktomi thus: 

"The ubiquitous Unktomi tortures tlie Indians in their hunger by bringing herds 
of buffaloes near the camp, which they no sooner start to pursue than he drives away 
by means of a black wolf and a white crow."^ 

§ 230. Though Ikto was very cunning, he was sometimes deceived 
by other beings. One day he caught the rabbit, and the latter was 
about to fare hard, Avhen a thought occurred to him. He persuaded his 
captor to release him on condition that he taught Ikto one of his magic 
arts. Said the rabbit, "Elder brother, if you wish snoAv to fall at any 
time, take some hair such as this (pulling out some rabbit fur) and 
blow it in all directions, and there will be a blizzard." The rabbit then 
made a deep snow in this manner, though the leaves were still green. 
This surprised Ikto, who thought that he had learned a wonderful 
ac^complishment. But the foolish fellow did not know that rahhit fur 
was necessary, and when he tried to make snow by blowing his own 
hair, he was disappointed. 

§ 231. On another occasion, Ikto reached a stream which he could 
not ford. So he stood on the bank and sang thus : 



i 



i^ ' J-^ii ' i^ ^ ' ii^'i j ^ 



To -kin ko-wa-ka-tan uia-ka-ni, e-chiu'chin na-wa-zhin! 
I stand, thinking often, Oh that I might reach the other side ! 

Presently a long object passed, swimming against the curreirt. When 
it reached him it said, " I will take you across, but you must not lift 
your licad above the water. Should you notice even a small cloud warn 
me at once, as I must go under the water." Ikto was then told to give 
the warning thus: "Younger brother, your grandfather is coming." 
Before the other bank was reached Ikto gave the warning, and so sud- 
den was tlie commotion that Ikto became unconscious. On recovering, 
he found that the thunder was roaring, and the water was dashing 
high, but the monster had disappeared. 

'With this compare the belief of some African tribes that the monkey has the gift of speech, but 
fears to use it lest he should be made a slave. 
''Minn. Hi.st. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 2, p. 66. 



^"«^"'] CAJ^OTIDAN AND HOHNOGICA. 473 

It is shown in the sectiou on Spider lore (§ 249) how the name Iktonii 
has been transferred from the mytliical character to the insect, who, 
in turn, is invoked as '' grand fatlier." 

CA]NfOTIDAIj AND HOHNOGICA. 

§232. Tliese powers have been scarcely differentiated; and some 
writers speak of them as identical. They seem to have been of the 
nature of bogies or boggarts. Says Lynd :' 

Caijotidaij draws the hnngry liunters to the depths of the wood by imitating the 
voices of animals, or by the nefarious " Cico.' cico!" (i. c, I invite you to a feast ! I 
invite you to a feast!) when he scares them out of their senses by showing himself to 
them. 

On the same page he distinguishes between the Oaijotidaij and the 
Ohnogi(''a thus : 

"The stray lodge becomes the delight of the wild Ohnogica," implying that such 
lodges were haunted l.)y this spirit for the purpose of frightening any unwary trav- 
eler who ventured there without a companion. 

In Tah-koo Wah-kon (p. 75, note), Kiggs speaks of the "Chan-o-te- 
dan or Hoh iio-ge-cha. The former is a fabulous creature, dwelling 
usually in the woods as the name indicates. The latter name would 
seem to give it a place by the door of the tent." With this we may 
compare the Omaha invocation, " O thou who standest at the right side 
of the entrance ! Here is tobacco !" (§ 40). The name also reminds us 
of "The Dweller upon the Threshold" in Bulwer's "Zanoni." 

Eiggs, in his "Theogony of the Sioux," p. 270, writes thus of the 
"Chan-o-te-ua": 

This means, Dweller in the woods. Sometimes he is called Oh-no-ge-cha, which 
would seem to assign him to a place in the tent. Whether these are one and the 
same^ or two, is a question in dispute. But they are harmless household gods. The 
Chan-o-te-ua is represented as a little child, only it has a tail. Many Indian men 
affirm that they have seen it, not only in night dreams, but in day visions. 

The name Holinogica or Olinogica is called by the Teton, Uijgnagi- 
cala, which is the name of the screech-owl. As the Ponka Inda(|*inga 
dwells in the forest, and is said to resemble an owl, he nuist be iden- 
tical with the Dakota Oaijotidaij or Uijgnagicala. (See §38.) 

ANUNG-ITE. 

§ 233. Wonderful stories of beings with two faces are found among 
the Dakota as well as among the Omaha. Lynd'' states the belief of 
the Dakota (/. e., those speaking the Santee dialect) that "women with 
child are but torturing sports for the vengeful Anog-ite." 

In the Omaha legend of Two Faces and the Twins' the pregnant 
mother of the Twins died as soon as she had gazed at Two Faces. In 
the Teton legend of He-who-Has-a-Sword and Ha-ke-la, the latter is 
said to have met a giant, Anuijg-ite, or Two Faces, who pretended to 
be an Indian Avoman nursing an infant. The infant had been stolen 

'Miun. Hist. Soc. Coll.. vol. ll. pt. 2, p. CO. 

2 Una., p. 66. 

3Cont. N. A. Ktiiiiol. . vol. vi. v\<. •-•I17--J19. 



474 A STUDY OF SIOUAK CULTS. 

from its parents by the Auuijg-ite, wlio drew a rose brush across its 
face to make it cry. As soon as this was doue the Two Faces said, in 
a woman's voice, -A-wo! A-woI A-wo!" that being the expression used 
by Teton women when they wish to soothe crying infants. 

§ 234. Tlie Indians used to hear an Anuijg-ite or Two Faces pass 
along kicking the ground. When he kicked the ground with one foot 
bells used to ring and an owl hooted, and when he kicked with the other 
it seemed as if a buffalo bull was there, snorting as he does when about 
to charge. At the next step a chickadee was heard, and when he moved 
the other foot he made all kinds of animals cry out. The Indians had 
heard this Anuijg-ite and were afraid of him. Now and then when a 
man who thought himself strong was alone when he met the Auuijg-ite 
the latter surprised him by catching him and throwing him into one of 
his ears. These ears were so large that each could hold three men. No 
person knew where the Anuijg-ite made his abode, and no one cared to 
follow him; no one dared to go out of doors at night. Now, there was 
an old man and his wife who had a lodge to themselves, and their only 
child was a willful boy. One night he was particularly ill-behaved, and 
when his mother told him to do something he disobeyed her. So she 
said : " I will put you out of the lodge and the Anuijg-ite will toss you 
into his ear." She did not believe this, and merely said it to frighten 
her son into obedience. Finding him heedless, she seized his arm and, 
though he began to cry, pushed him out of the lodge and fastened the 
entrance securely. The poor boy ran crying around the lodge, but soon 
there was silence. The mother in turn began to cry, and went to seek 
him, but she did not find him (mtside the lodge. The next morning she 
and her husband, weeping, went to seek him among the people in 
the neighboring camp, asking every one about him, but no one had seen 
hhn. So they returned to their lodge, and they wept many days for 
their son. One night the mother was weeping. Suddenly she heard 
some one say, '' Hi"" ! hi" ! You said to me : Ghost, take that one. Hi" ! 
hi"!" This was said often, and she noticed a rattling of small bells as 
the being walked along. Just then she said: "Husband, I think now 
that a ghost has taken my son." The husband said: "Yes; you gave 
the boy to the ghost, and, of course, the ghost took him. Why should 
you complain? It serves you right." Then the mother cried aloud, so 
that her voice might have been heard at a distance. Then said she: 
"Husband, to-morrow night- 1 will lie hid by the wood-pile, and if the 
ghost comes I will have a knife in my hand, and after I catch it by the 
leg I will call to you. Be ready to come at once. Yon must aid me, 
and I will recover my son, because I know that he threw him into his 
ear." So the next night she lay in wait for the monster. By and by 
vsomething was coming, crying out "Hi"!'" and making all kinds of birds 
and animals cry out as it walked. She saw a very large being come 
and stand by the lodge. He was very tall, his head being above the 
smoke-hole, down which he peeped into the h)dge. Suddenly the mother 



DORSEY] ANUI^G-ITE — GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 475 

called to her husband, aud .seized one leg of tlie nionSter with both 
hands. Then she and her husband gashed the legs in many places, 
aud, after tyiug a thong to one leg, they pulled down the monster and 
bound him securely. They guarded him till it Avas day. Tlien they 
beheld a hideous monster covered with thick hair, except on his faces. 
They split his ears with a knife, and within one they found their long- 
lost son, who was very lean and unable to speak. He had a thick coat 
of long hair on him from his legs up to his head, but his head and face 
were smooth. And he would have become an Anuijg-ite had he not 
been rescued. He did not survive very long. After the parents had 
taken their son from the ear of the monster they ])ut many sticks of 
wood on a fire, and on tins they laid the monster. He soon was in 
flames, and they stood looking on. Many things were sent flying out 
of the fire in all directions, just like sparks. These were porcui^ine 
quills, bags, all kinds of feathers, arrows, i>ipes, birds, axes, war-clul)s, 
flints, stones for sharpening knives, stone balls resembling billiard balls, 
necklaces of tuM shells, flints for striking tinder, flint hide-scrapers, 
whips, tobacco-pouches, all kinds of beads, etc. ^ 

PENATES. 

§ 235. It has been supposed that the Dakotas had no penates or 
household gods ; but according to Riggs,^ " such have come into tlie i)os- 
session of the missionaries. One of these images is that of a little 
man. and is inclosed in a cylindrical wooden case, and enveloped in 
sacred swan's down." 

GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 

§ 230. Each Teton may have his special guardian spirit. If such 
spirits are remembered they confer great power on their favorites. 
The latter may be surrounded by foes and yet escape, either by receiv- 
ing great strength, enabling them to scatter their enemies, or by being 
made invisible, disappearing like a ghost or the wind. Sometimes it 
is said that one is rescued by being turned into a small bird that flies 
off in safety. (See §§ 122, 325.) This refers to those who "ihaijbla" 
(have intercourse with spirits) or who have guardian spirits (tawasi- 
cuijpi) as servants. Bushotter's stepfather has a guardian spirit who 
enabled him to tell about lost animals, etc., and bad deeds, even when 
the latter were committed in secret. So Bushotter and the other chil- 
dren of the household were afraid to do wrong after they had been 
detected several times by the aid of the guardian spirit. 

BELIEFS ABOUT THE BUFFALO. 

§ 237. In several of the Siouan tribes the buffalo is considered a 

•Translated from the original MS. in the Bushotter collection. Tuki is tlie Teton name for a uni- 
valve shellfish said to come from the Great Lakes. 
»Tah.koo Wah-kon, p. 71. 



476 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

'^o-randfather." He figures in the traditions of the OsageJ Gentes 
and sub gentes are named after liim. His image plays an important 
part in the sun dance (§ 164). 

§ 238. Miss Fletcher^ mentions a prayer used during the White Buf- 
falo Festival of the Huukpapa Dakota, m which are remembered the 
"powers of the earth, wind, sun, water, and the buffalo." And in her 
article on "The Shadow or Ghost Lodge; a Ceremony of the Ogallala 
Sioux," she states that 2 yards of red cloth are (were) "lifted and 
offered to the buffalo, with a prayer that good may (might) be granted 
to the father" (i. e., of the dead child) "during the period of the lodge- 
keei)ing." ^ 

§239. In her article on the "Elk Mystery of the Ogallala Sioux"* 
is given an important note : 

AmoDg the Santees iu past times, a man ■svho should dream of buffalo must 
auuouncc it iu the following manuer: He takes the head of a hutfalo he has killed, 
carefully removes the skin, preserving it as nearly whole as possible, and throws 
away the skull and tlie tlesh. He then restores the skin to its natural shajie and lets it 
cure. When this has taken place, a few feet square of earth is set apart at the back of 
the lodge, the sods cut off, and the exposed earth made fine. This is the " U-ma-ne." 
Upon this earth a new blanket, formerly a robe, is spread. The blanket or robe must 
not belong to a woman. The buffalo head is placed in the center of the blanket, and 
one side of the head (is) painted blue, and the other (side) red. Upon the blue side, 
tufts of white swan's down are tied to the hair of the head. Sometimes small eagle 
feathers are substituted, and, very rarely, large feathers. Upon the red side, tufts 
of down-colored red are similarly tied. These decorations look like " a woman's 
sunbonnet," as they cover the head and fall to the shoulders. The pipe is only filled 
and presented to the head. The feast kettle is hung over the fire. When all is in 
readiness, the man who prepared the head thus addresses it : " Grandfather ! Vener- 
able man ! Your children have made this feast for you. May the food thus taken 
cause them to live, and bring them good fortune." An Indian of remarkable intel- 
ligence, whose father before him had been a priest of the higher class, explained 
that in some religious festivals the buffalo and the earth were spoken of as one, and 
(were) so regarded. "Therefore if any one should revile or ridicule the buffalo, 
ever so softly, the earth would hear and tell the buffalo, and he would kill the man." 

Bushotter furnished two articles on the buffalo, translations of which 
are appended. 

ORIGIN OF THE BUFFALO. 

^240. The buft'alo originated under the earth. It is said that in the olden times, aman 
who was journeying came to a hill where there were uianj^ holes in the ground. He 
explored them, and when he had gone within one of them, he found plenty of buttalo 
chips, and buffalo tracks were on all sides ; and here and there he found buffalo hair 
which had come out wheu the animals rubbed against the walls. These animals were 
the real buffalo, who dwelt underground, and some of them came up to tliis earth 
and increased here to many herds. These buffalo had many earth lodges, and there 



' Osage Traditions, in 6th An. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 379, 380. Am. Naturalist, February, 1884, pp. 113, 
114, 133. Ibid, July, 1885, p. 671, Om. Soc, in 3(1 An. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 228, 233, 244, 247. 

'Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. Ill, p. 264. Note how in the sun dance the sun, the four winds, and 
tlie Imfl'alo are referred to (^^ 147, 164, 167, 173, and 181, and PI. XLvni), and ceremonies are performed con- 
nected with the earth, such as mellowing the earth (^§ 146, 155, and 176) and the " Uu<5ita," in which 
tliej' shoot into the ground (§ 170). 

:'Op. cit., p. 297. 

'Op. cit., p. 282. note. 



DOESEY.i THE BUFFALO THE BEAR THE WOLF. 477 

they raised their cUildreu. They did many strange thiugs. Therefore when a man 
can hardly be wounded by a foe, the people believe that the former has seen the 
biiftalo in dreams or visions, and on that account has received mysterious help from 
those animals. All .such men who dream of the buffalo, act like them and dance the 
buffalo (bull) dance. And the man who acts the buffalo is said to have a real buffalo 
iuside him, and a chrysalis lies within the tlat part of the body near the shoulder- 
blade ; on account of which the man is hard to kill ; no matter how often they wound 
him, he does not die. As the ])coplc know that the buffalo live lu earth lodges, they 
never dance the buffalo dance in vain. 

THE TAT.\>;(iNA.SKIffVA>^' (iH MYTHIC BUFFALO. 

vS 21J^. It is said that a mythic buffalo once attacked a i)arty of Indians, killing one 
of them. The others fled and climbed a tree, at which the buffalo rushed many 
times, knocking off' piece after x>iece of the tree with his horns till very little of it 
was left. Then one of the Indians lighted some tinder and threw it far off into the 
tall grass, scorching the buffalo's eyes, and seriously injuring his horns, causing the 
hard part of the latter to slip off", so that the animal could no longer gore any one. 
But as he was still dangerous, one of the men determined to fight him at the risk of 
his own life, and so he slipped down from the tree, armed with a bow and some 
arrows. He finally gave the buffalo a mortal wound. Then all the men came down 
the tree and cut up the buffalo after flaying him. They were about to carry off the 
body of their dead comrade in a robe, when they were obliged to climb a tree again 
because another mythic buffalo had appeared. He did not attack them, but went 
four times around the body of the slain man. Then he sto])ped and said, "Arise to 
your feet." All at once, the dead man came to life. The buffalo addressed him, 
saying, '' Hereafter you shall be mysterious, and the sun, moon, four winds, day and 
night shall be your servants." It was so. He could assume the shape of a tine 
plume, which was blown often against a tree, to which it stuck, as it waved repeat- 
edly. 

THE BEAK. 

§242. The Assiniboin address prayers to the bear.' They offer it sacrifices of to- 
bacco, belts, and other esteemed objects. They celebrate feasts in its honor, to obtain 
its favors and to live without accidents. The bear's head is often preserved in 
the camp during several days, mounted in some suitable position and adorned with 
scraps of scarlet cloth, and trimmed with a variety of necklace collars, and colored 
feathers. Then they offer it the calumet, and ask it that they may be able to kill 
all the bears they meet, without accident to themselves, in order to anoint them- 
selves with his fine grease and make a banquet of his tender flesh. 

THE WOLF. 

§243. Smet says, "Tlie wolf is more or less honored among the 
Iudiaus"(/. e. the Assiniboin) "Most of the womenrefuse to dress its 
skin for any purpose. The only reason that I could discover for this 
freak is, that the wolves sometimes go mad, bite those they meet and 
give them the hydrophobia. It is doubtless to escape this terrible dis- 
ease and to avoid the destruction of their game, tliat tlie Indians make 
it" (the wolf) "presents, and ofter it supplications. In other cases, he- 
is little feared." The "little medicine wolf" is in great veneration 
among the Assiniboin. As soon as an Indian hearshisbarks, he counts 
the number; he remarks whether his voice is feeble or strong, and from 



'Smet, Western Missions anil Mission.iries, p. 139. 



478 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

what point of the compass it proceeds. All these things are regarded 
as good or bad omeus. If the uudertakings of the Indians result, as 
they occasionally do, in success, after hearing the barking of the little 
wolf, this animal is honored by a grand feast after the return of the 
party.' 

§244. That some of the Dakota reverenced the wolf is evident from 
the fact that there is a society, called the Wolf Society, but known 
among the white people as the Dog Society. That society has many 
beautiful songs, according to Bushotter, and its membership is confined 
to young men. All the wolf stories belong to this society. Three of 
these stories follow this section. 

§245. The man who met the ghost woman after fleeing from the two 
ghost men'' encountered a wolf, who pitied him and sliowed him the way 
to a camp, where he was received and adopted into the tribe. This man 
always remembered the Avolf as a kind animal, and when he killed any 
game, he threw a portion outside of the camp, asan offering to the wolf 

§ 24G. There was once a handsome young Teton, whose wife's father 
disliked him and plotted against him. He dug a pit within his lodge, 
covering it with skins. Then he invited his son-in-law to a feast. The 
son-in-law met a wolf, whom he saluted, asking him the way to the vil- 
lage. The young man was persuaded to recline on the skins, which gave 
way, precipitating him into the pit. The father-in-law and his two single 
danghters covered the skins with earth, and removed their tent else- 
where on the morrow, when all the people started on a journey. After 
some days, the wolf who had met the man went to the deserted camp- 
ing place in search of food. On reaching the place where the accident 
( ?) had happened, he heard a human cry. So he dug away the earth, 
removed the skins, and fonnd the man, whom he recognized. The Avolf 
pitied him, and said, '' As you did not kill me when we met, you shall 
now be saved." So he howled, and very soon many wolves appeared. 
They found a lariat, which they lowered into the pit, and by grasping 
the other end with their teeth, they pulled the man up. He was very 
grateful, promising never to harm a wolf. Just then a weeping woman 
ajipeared, gazing in surprise at the man, as he was very thin, looking 
like a ghost. She was his wife, and her heart was soon made glad when 
he told her of his rescue. 

§247. Once upon time a man found a wolf den, into which he dug to 
get the cubs. The mother came, barking, and she finally said to him, 
'• Pity my children;" but he paid no attention to her. So she ran for 
her husband, who soon appeared. Still the man persevered. Then the 
wolf sang a beautiful song, " O man, pity my children, and I will in- 
struct you in one of my arts." He en<led with a howl, causing a fog. 
When the wolf howled again the fog disappeared. Then the man 
thought, " These animals have mysterious gifts," and he tore up his red 

' Smet, Western Missions and MissioDaiies, \>. 140. 
'See Ghost Lore, ^280. 



"OJ^sEY] HORSES SPIDERS SNAKE LORE. 479 

blanket into small pieces, which he put as necklaces on the cubs, whom 
he painted with Indian red, restoring tliem to their place in the den. 
Then the grateful father exclaimed, '' When you go to war hereafter, I 
will accompany you, and bring to pass whatever you wish. " So they 
parted as friends. In the course of time the man went on the war path 
As he came in sight of a village of the enemy, a large Avolf met him, 
saying, '' By and by I will sing and you shall steal their horses when 
they least suspect danger." So they stoi)ped on a hill close to the vil- 
lage, and the wolf sang. After this he liowk'd, making a high wind 
arise. The horses Hed to the forest, many stopping on the hillside. 
When the wolf had howled again, the wind died away, and a mist arose j 
so the man took as many horses as he pleased. 

HORSES. 

§ 248. These are well named '' Cfinka waka" (.^uijka wakaij)" for they 
are indeed wakaij. Consequently the Dakota have the Cung olowa" 
(Suijgolowaij) or Horse Songs, and they pray to the horses (cewicaki- 
yapi). If any one paints a horse in a wakaij manner, when he has no 
right to do so, he is sure to pay thei)eualty: he will encounter mis- 
fortune of some sort, or he will fall ill, or he will be slain by a foe, or he 
will have his neck broken by being thrown from a horse. 

SPIDERS. 

§ 249. The Teton pray to gray spiders, and to those with yellow legs. 
When a person goes on a journey and a spider passes, one does not 
kill it in silence. For should one let it escape, or kill it without prayer, 
bad consequences must ensue. In the latter case, another spider 
would avenge the death of his relation. To avoid any such misfor- 
tune, when the spider is encountered, the person must say to it, 
"Iktomi Tuijkaijsila, Wa^^iijyaij niktepe lo," i.e., " O Grandfather Spider, 
the Thunder-beings kill you!" The spider is crushed at once, and his 
spirit believes what has been told him. His spirit probably tells this to 
the other spiders, but they can not harm the Thunder-beings. If one 
thus addresses a spider as he kills it, he will never be bitten by other 
spiders. 

§ 231. One of the Dakota myths tells how Unktomi killed himself, 
causing his limbs to shrivel up till they assumed the appearance of 
spiders' limbs. 

SNAKE LORE. 

§ 250. Some Dakota will not kill snakes by hitting them. He who 
violates the law in this respect will dream horrible dreams about 
various kinds of snakes; and occasionally it happens that such a man 
has a horse bitten by a snake. The SiijteUla taijka, or the Ancient of 
Eattlesnakes, was one of the enemies of the Thunder-beings. 

"There are some things about which it is most unluckv to dream. 



480 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

Snakes are said to be terrible; they seek to enter a man's ears, nose, 
or mouth" (i.e., in tlie dream); "and should one succeed, it is a sure 
sign of death. 'No good comes from snakes."" 

THE DOUBLE WOMAN. 

§ 251. In the oldeu times there was what they called " Wiijyaij nuij- 
pa])i-ka,''or the The Double Woman, consisting of two very tall females 
who were ])robably connected by a membrane. They wore horned head- 
dresses decorated with feathers, and bunches of feathers hung from the 
right shoulder of one and from the left shoulder of the other. Instead 
of heel tags, each female had a turtle trailing from the heel or quarter 
of one moccasin, an<l a feather from that of the other. In the sketch 
as given by Bushotter there is a pale blue stripe around the bottom of 
each skirt, and half of each trailing feather is of that color. Each body, 
above the top of tlie blanket, is painted with blue dots on a yellow 
ground. There is a blue stripe across the right shoulder of the woman 
on the right, and one across the left shoulder of the other woman, each 
stripe curving downward towards the opposite side. '(See PI. L.) 

They dwelt in a lodge on a very high black cliff. They were always 
laughing immoderately, as if they were strangers to sorrow. On pleas- 
ant evenings they stood on a hill, where they amused themselves by 
swinging. Should any Indian see them, when he reached home lie 
vomited something resembling black earth, and died suddenly. These 
women were skillful dancers, and they used to reflect rays of light by 
means of their mirror, just as the young Indian men do in sporr. They 
jumped many times and sang this song: 



f 



»J ^ 1 J'J'J'j J'J J ii 



Ce-piiij-si kii- wa'- ni- to' Tii'-wa le'-c'i .si' - ua mi' - co-ze'. 

"Cousin, please come over here ! Some one waves a robe over inthis 
direction at me. Ha! ha! ha!" Then they walked about. Xo one 
knew from what quarter the Double Woman was coming, and how the 
two lived was a mystery. There are many tall women found now among 
different Indian tribes who imitate the behavior of the Double Woman. 

John IJruyier and other Teton at Hampton, Ya., regard this story 
of the Double Woman as manufactured by Bushotter. But this char- 
acter figures in two Santee myths in Rev. S. K. Riggs's collection, about 
to be ])ublished by the Bureau of Ethnology.^ (See § 394.) 

DEEE WOMEN. 

§ 2r)2. Deer women of the Teton resemble the Wolf women of the 
Pawnee. Both tempt unwary youths whom they encounter away from 



' Misa Fletcher, Elk Mystery of the Ogalalbi Sioux, in Kept. Peahody Museum, vol. in, p. 281, note. 
'Contr. to X. A. Ethn., vol. ix, Dakota Oamniar, Texts, and Ethnography. Washington: Gov- 
ernment Printing Office. 1893. pp. 131, 141, 144, 148. 



/ 



— 1 



K^RSF.Y.] DWARFS OR ELVES HOGS. 481 

tlio cam]) ill solitary i)lacc'is. Should a youth yield to the woman's 
solicitations the result will be a sad one. As soon as he leaves her she 
will resume her natural shape. The youth will appear as if drunk or 
insane, and he will reach home with difticulty. His health will become 
impaired, and he will soon die. So now the hunters avoid any female 
that they see on the way. They hate the Deer wonu^n. The Deer 
women never speak, but in all other respects they resemble Indian 
women. 

DWARFS OR ELVES. 

§ 253. Dwarfs or elves are probably referred to in the following. 

This [(. e. tho object sought by Lewis aud (Jhirke'fs party] was a large mound in 
the midst of the plain, about N. 20^^ W. from the month of Whitestone River, from 
which it is 9 mile.s distant. The base of the mound is a regular parallelogram, the 
longest side being about 800 yards, tlie slun'ter (JO or 70; from the longest side it 
rises with a steep ascent from the north ;ind south to the iieight of (55 or 70 feet, 
leaA'ing on the top a level plain of V2 feet in breadth and i)0 in length. The north 
and soutli extremities are connected by two oval l)orders, wiiich serve as new bases, 
and divid(> the wh(de side into three steej) but regular gradations from the plain. 
The only thing characteristic in this hill is its extreme symmetry, and this, together 
with its l)eing wholly detached from the other hills, which are at the distance 
of 8 or 9 miles, would induce a l)elief that it was artificial ; but as the earth and 
loose pebbles which compose it are arranged exactly like the steep grounds on tho 
N)order8 of tlie creek, we concluded from this similarity of texture tliat it might be 
natural. But the Indians have made it a great article of their superstiticm; it is 
called the Mountain of the Little People, or Little Spirits, and they believe that it 
is the abode of little devils in the human form, of about 18 inclies high, and with 
remarkably large heads; they are armed with sharp arrows, with which they are 
very skillful, and are always on the watch to kill those wiio should have tlie hardi- 
hood to approach their residence. The tradition is that many have sujffered from 
these little evil spirits, and. among others, three Maha Indians fell a sacrifice to them 
a few years since. This has inspired all the neighboring nations, Sioux, Mahas, and 
Ottoes, with such terror that no consideration could temptthem to visit the hill.' 

^ BOGS. 

§ 254. Bogs are very mysterious. There are various strange objects 
covered with thick hair which remain at the bottom of a bog. These 
objects have no <^yes, but they are able to devour anything, and from 
their bodies water is ever flowing. When one of these beings wishes, 
he abandons his abode and reclines under ground at another place; 
then there is no water issuing from the place where he used to lie, but 
a spring gushes forth from the new resting place. The water of this 
spring is warm in winter, but as cold as ice in summer, and before one 
dares to drink of it he prays to the water, as he does not wish to bring 
illness on himself by his irreverence. In the olden days one of these 
strange beings was pulled up out of a bog and carried to the camp, 
where a special tent was erected for him. But water flowed all around 
him, which drowned almost all of the people. Then the survivors 



' Lewis and Clarke, Expedition, cd. Allen, Dublin. 1817, vol. i, pi). 65,66. 
11 ETII 31 



482 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

ofleied him food, wliicli be held as he sat motionless, gaziii?: at them. 
The food disappeared before the spectators were aware of it, though 
they did not see the being eat it. 

TREES. 

§ 255. The Dakota prayed to trees, because it was reported that 
in former days a tree had sung at intervals. A man claimed to have 
witnessed this, and from that time they have been regarded as mys- 
terious. 

CUSTOMS RELATING TO CHILDHOOD. 

§ 256. The Teton sing on account of the unborn child, and set up a 
pole inside the lodge, at the part opposite the entrance, fastening 
eagles' down to the top of the pole, just as they do when a boy has 
advanced toward manhood. 

§ 257. Soon after birth they paint the face of the infant, whether it 
be a boy or a girl, Avith vermilion, in the "Huijka " style.* Should they 
neglect to do this, it is said that the infant would become blear-eyed or 
it would suffer from some kind of sickness. 

§ 258. When the navel string is cut, a small bag is made of deer- 
skin, cut in the shape of a small tortoise, known as patkasala. In this 
bag is placed a piece of the navel string and sweet- smelling leaves, 
with which the bag is tilled. The infant has to carry this bag on its 
back. Part of the navel string is buried, and when the child is large 
enough to get into mischief they say, " He is hunting for his navel 
string.'' 

§ 259. Prior to the naming of the infant is the ceremony of the trans- 
fer of character. Should the infant be a boy, a brave and good-tem- 
pered man, chosen beforehand, takes the infant in his arms and breathes 
into his mouth, thereby communicating his own disposition to the 
infant, who will grow up to be a brave and good-natured man. It is 
thought that such an infant will not cry as much as infants that have 
not been thus favored. Should the infant be a girl, it is put into the 
arms of a good woman, who breathes into its mouth. 

§ 2«)0. Twins are a mystery to the Teton, who believe that they are 
of superhuman origin, and must come from Twin-land. As they are 
not human beings, they must be treated very politely and tenderly, lest 
they should become offended and die in order to return to Twin-land. 

In his MS. Teton vocabulary, sent to the Bureau of Ethnology in 
July, 1890, Dr. J. M. Woodburn, jr., recently physician at Kosebud 
Agency, S. Dak., makes the following statement which seems worthy 
of notice: ''Twins are lucky as regards themselves only; the mother 
is looked upon as unfortunate. The twins may die, but they are sure 
to be born again into separate families. No ordinary human being can 
recognize them as twins after the new births: but twins themselves 



'See'- Calumet Dauce," iu Om. Sociology, 3d Am. Kept. Bur. Ethu., p. 280. 



"OKSEV] PUBERTY. 483 

are able each to recognize the other as his I'ellow-twiu in a previous 
state of existence. Medicine men often claim that their supernatural 
powers are due to a previous existence as twins." (rfee §§ 2G7, 287.) 

§ 261. When a child is able to walk, they say that " He kicks out the 
teeth of his elder brother" (or '^ sister, " as the case may be). The teeth 
of the elder child which have been shed, probably the first set, are 
buried under the entrance to the lodge so that other teeth may come in 
their place. Whoever steps over the spot where the teeth have been 
buried will soon have other teeth in his mouth. 

PUBERTY. 

§262. Among the Oglala Dakota, according to Miss Fletcher,' the 
rites incident to the puberty of girls take place on the fourth day 
of the sun dance festival. In a note on page 260 of the Peabody 
Museum lleport, vol. iii, the same authority says: 

Through the kindness of Eev. A. L. Riggs I learn that among the l)an(ls of East- 
ern Sioux living near Fort Sully, Dak., a feast, called the reappearance of the White 
Buftalo Skin, is held for the consecration of a girl on her arriving at puberty. The 
feast is sacred and costly, and not everyone can afford it. Those who have once 
made the feast Tiecome the privileged guests at every such feast, occupy the feast 
tent, and are served first. A prominent feature in the feast is the feeding of these 
privileged persons, and the girl in whose honor the feast is given, with choke cher- 
ries, as the choicest rarity to be had in the winter. The feast can be held at any 
time. Bull berries, or, as the Dakotas call them, " rabbits' noses, "' may be substi- 
tuted, or finely pounded meat mixed with fat, in case no berries are to be had. In 
the ceremony, a few of the cherries are taken in a spoon and held over the sacred 
smoke, then fed to the girl. The spoon is filled anew, incensed aseachi)ersonis fed. 
As each one is given the cherries, he is addressed thus: '• Wi-ca-sa-ya-ta-pi wo-yu- 
te de ya-tiij kte, i. e., "You will eat this chief's food. " The eaters are not chiefs; 
they only partake of chiefs' food. 

§263, Initiation to manhood took place in one of two ways: (1) By 
the wohduze ceremony, or, (2) by the bear dance, as witnessed by Long. 

The former has been referred to in §§122-125 of this article; the lat- 
ter has been described by Long'^ as 

a ceremony which they are in the habit of performing when any young man wishes 
to bring himself into particlar notice, and it is considered a kind of initiation into 
the state of manhood. There is a kind of flag made of fawn skin dressed with the 
hair on, suspended upon a pole. Upon the flesh side of it are drawn certain figures 
indicative of the dream which it is necessary the young man should have dreamed 
before he can be considered a proper candidate for this kind of initiation. With 
this flag a pipe is suspended by way of sacrifice. Two arrows are stuck up at the 
foot of the pole, and fragments of painted feathers, etc., are strewed upon the ground 
near it. These pertain to the religious rites attending the ceremony, bewailing and 
self-mortification. The young man who has had the dream acts the bear in this 
dance, and is hunted by the other young men ; but the same man can not act the bear 
more than once in consequence of his dreams. 

§ 264. Miss Fletcher says :^ 

' Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Montreal meeting, 1882, p. 583. 

^-SklflF Voy. to Falls of St. Anthony, in Minn. Hist. Coll., u, pt. 1, pp. 1H-I9. 

^Rept. Peabody Museum, vol. ni, pj). 277. 278. 



484 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

Tlic maturity of the sexes is a period of serious aud religious experiences which 
are preparatory by their character for the entrance of the youth or maiden into the 
religious and secular responsibilities of life, both individual and tribal. Among 
the tribes which hold especial public ceremonies announcing the maturity of a girl, 
these rights are held not far from the actual time of puberty, aud indicate the close 
of childhood and entrance of the person into the social status of womanhood. The 
public festival has, however, been preceded by private religious rites. With young 
men the religious training precedes and follows puberty, and the entrance is pub- 
licly announced by the youth joining m the dangers and duties of tribal life. Ac- 
cording to the old customs, a young man did not take a wife until he had jiroved his 
])rowess, and thus became enrolled among the manly element, or brakes, as they are 
sometimes spoken of. The initial fasts of warriors have been mistaken sometimes 
for ceremonials of puberty. 

GHOST LORE AND THE FUTURE LIFE. 

MEANING OF WANAGI. 

§ 265. The word " wa-ua-gi" means more than " apparition." The 
living man is supposed to have one, two, or more " wanagi," one of 
wliich after death remains at the grave and another goes to the phice 
of the departed. The writer has been tokl that for many years no 
Yankton Dakota would consent to have his picture taken lest one of 
his '* wanagi" should remain in the picture, instead of going after death 
to the spirit land. The Teton Dakota apply the name of ''ghost" or 
''shadow" to the. lock of hair cut from the forehead of the deceased 
and kept for some time by the parents; and till that lock is buried the 
deceased is supposed to retain his usual place in the household circle. 

§ 206. Lyud' says that to the human body the Dakota give four 
spirits : 

The lirst is supposed to be a spirit of the body^ which dies with the body. The 
second is a spirit which always remains with or near the body. Another is the soul 
which accounts for the deeds of the Ijody, and is supposed by some to go to the south, 
by others to the west, after the death of the l)ody. The fourth always lingers with 
the small bundle of the hair of the deceased, kept by the relatives until they have a 
chance to throw it into the enemy's country, when it becomes a roving spirit, bring- 
ing death and disease to the enemy in whose country it remains. From this belief 
arose the practice of wearing four scalp feathers for each enemy slain in battle, one 
for each spirit. 

§ 2G7. "Some Sioux claim a fifth scalp feather, averring that there is 
a fifth spirit, which enters the body of some animal or child after death. 
As far as I am aware, this belief is not general, though they differ in 
their accounts of the spirits of man, even in number. 

Some of these metempsychosists go so far as to aver that they have 
distinct recollections of a former state of existence and of the passage 
into this. The belief, as before stated, does not appear to be general." 
(See §§ 260, 287.) 

§ 268. With regard to the place of abode of the four spirits of each 
man— though they believe that the true soul which goes south or west 

'Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. u, pt. 2, pp. 68, 80. 



noRSEY.] DEATH AND BURIA.L LORE. 485 

is immortal — they have no idea, nor do they appear to have auy partic- 
ular care as to what may become of them after death. It may be 
remarlced, that the happy hunting- grounds, supposed to belong to 
every Indian's future, are no ])art of the Dakota creed — though indi- 
vidual Dakota may have learned something like it from the white men 
among them. 

ASSINNIBOIN BELIEFS ABOt'T THE DEAD. 

§ 269. The Assinniboin " believe that the dead migrate toward the 
south,' where the climate is mild, the game abundant, and the rivers well 
stocked with fish. Their hell is the reverse of this picture; its unfor- 
tunate inmates dwell in perpetual snow and ice and in the complete 
deprivation of all things. There are, however, many among them who 
think that death is the cessation of life and action and that there is 
naught beyond it.^ 

" The Assinniboine believe that their dead go to a country in the 
south, where the good and brave find women and buffaloes, while the 
wicked or cowardly are confined on an island, where they are destitute 
of all the pleasures of life. The corpses of brave men are not deposited 
in trees, but on the ground, as they will help themselves, and they are 
covered with wood and stones to protect them from the wolves."^ 

GHOSTS NOT ALWAYS VISIBLE. 

§ 270. The ghosts of the departed are not always visible to the living. 
Sometimes they are heard but not seen, though in the lodge with a 
mortal. Occasionally they become materialized, taking living hus- 
bands or wives, eating, drinking, and smoking, just as ii' they were 
ordinary human beings. 

DEATH AXD BURIAL LORE. 

§ 271. As ghosts visit the sick at night it is customary to drive them 
away by making a smoke from cedar wood, or else cedar is hiid outside 
the lodge. Sometimes a piece of cedar is fastened up at the smoke- 
hole. (See § 42.) One Teton story shows how a female ghost dishked 
a bad odor and fled from it. When they hear a ghost whistling, some 
one leaves the lodge and fires a gun. Before death the lodge is sur- 
rounded by ghosts of deceased kindred that are visible to the dying 
person. 

All the dead man's possessions are buried with him; his body is 
dressed in good clothing. The favorite horse is decorated and saddled, 
and to this day various articles belonging to the deceased are fastened 
to him. The horse is shot and part of his tail is cut oft' and laid near 
the head of the burial scaffold, as it is thought that in such a case the 

'A similar belief lias been held by the Athapascans now on the Siletz reservation, Oregon. This 
has been published by the autlior in The American Anthropologist for January, 1889, p. 00. 
"Siuet, Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 142. 
^Maximilian. Travels in North America, p. 197. 



4S6 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

ghost can ride the ghost of tlie horse and use all the articles carried by 
that animal. 

§ 272. Why the Teton stopped burying in the gro2(n(l—Long ago the 
people buried some men on a hill and then removed camp to another 
place. Many winters afterwards a man visited this burial place, but all 
traces of the graves had disai)peared. So many men came and dug 
lar doAvii into the hill. By aad by one said, " A road lies here." So 
they dug in that direction and made a tire underground. And there 
they found a tunnel large enough for men to walk in by stooping, with 
many similar intersecting ones. They followed the main one and final- 
ly came to a place whither a strange animal, the Wahaijksica, had 
dragged the corpses. For this reason the Lakota became unwilling to 
lay their dead in the ground, so they began to bury on scaffolds which 
could not be reached by beasts of prey. At the i)resent day the Teton 
gives three reasons for not burying in the ground : (I) Animals or per- 
sons might walk over the graves ; (2) the dead might lie in mud and 
water after rain or snow; (3) wolves might dig up the bodies and 
devour them. 

§ 273. Importance of tdttooing. — In order that the ghost may travel 
the ghost road in safety it is necessary for each Lakota during his life 
to be tattooed either in the middle of the forehead or on the wrists. In 
that event his spirit will go directly to the " Many Lodges." The other 
spirit road is said to be short, and the foolish one who travels it never 
reaches the "Many Lodges." An old wonmn sits in the road and 
she examines each ghost that passes. If she can not find the tattoo 
marks on the forehead, wrists, or chin, the unhappy ghost is pushed 
from a cloud or cliff and falls to this world. Such is the lot of the 
ghosts that wander o'er the earth. They can never travel the spirit 
road again; so they go about whistling, with no fixed abode. 

§ 274. If a (luiet and well-behaved person dies his ghost is apt to be 
restless and cause trouble, but the ghost of a bad person who dies a 
natural death is never feared. The ghost of a murdered person is 
always dangerous. 

§ 275. If a ghost calls to a loved one and the latter answers, he or she 
is sure to die soon after. If some one is heard weeping outside of a 
lodge, it is a sign that a person dwelling in that lodge is doomed to 
die. If a sister dies, she has a strong desire to return and carry ott' 
a beloved brother. So in the event of a death in the family a gun is 
fired or medicine is thrown on a fire to raise a smoke. If one who is 
alone encounters a ghost, the latter will be apt to pull his mouth and 
eyes until they are crooked. This danger is, encountered only by one 
Avho has dreamed of a ghost. He who has been harmed by a ghost 
always faints, and it is long before he revives. Mothers scare bad 
children by saying, "Well, wait a bit and I will tell a ghost to come 
and carry you ott'." Some one who has dreamed of ghosts will draw 
one on a skin, etc., to frighten the children. Such a person is said to 




DORSKYl CEREMONIES AT THE GHOST LODGE. 487 

draw bis own gliost just as he will appear iu future. No one else dares 
to draw a ghost. (See § 299.) 

CEREMONIES AT THE (iHOST LoPdE.' « 

§ 27G. When a sou dies the parents with a knife cut off some hair 
from the top of the head, just above the forehead, phi('iu<»- the hair in a 
deerskin cover. Then they set up three poles, fastened together at the 
top and forming a sort of tripod. A cord hung over the top of these 
holds up the white deerskin pack containing the hair of the deceased. 
This hair is called the ghost or shade (or wa-ua-gi) of the dead person. 
The deerskin pack hangs horizontally from the poles and the skin is 
worked with porcupine quills in many lines, and here and there are 
various kinds of red and blue circular tigures sewed on it. AU the sod 
had been cut away from the ground beneath the pack, and on this bare 
or virgin earth they put a bowl and a drinking vessel, each ornamented 
with porcupine work. Three times a day 
do they remember the ghost, for whom they 
put the choicest food in the bowl and water 
in the drinking vessel. Every article is 
handled carefully, being exposed to the 
smoke of sweet- smelling herbs. The pack ' 

said to contain the ghost is put in the ghost 
lodge with the knife which he used during / 

life. / 

The Indians always have observed the 
custom of smoking pipes and eating while / 
sitting in the ghost lodge. At the back of / 
the lodge they prepare a seat and in the / ^^ \ 

middle they set u]) two poles similar to / j/jm \ 

those erected outside the entrance to the C____^J^^ _. 
tents. Before they eat in the lodge, they ^, ,,^.^ ,^^ , . , , 

•' fr -^ iiG. 192.— The ghost lodge. 

sacrifice part of the food. Whenever they 

move the camp or single tent from one place to another all these sacred 
objects are packed and carried on a horse kept for this s]iecial puri)ose. 
This horse is called " Wanagi tasuijkewakaij,'' i. e., ^'The ghost's horse." 
This horse has his tail and mane cut off short; the hair on the body is 
shaved very close; his body is rubbed all over with yelhnv chiy. Some 
one then rubs paint on the fingers, touching the rump gently several 
times, as well as the forehead and around the neck and breast. A 
feather is tied to the end of the tail. On his back they place a saddle- 
cloth and a saddle, each ornamented with porcupine (piills. The horse 
must mourn— i. e., keep Ids hair short— as long as the ghost remains un- 
buried: but as soon as the hair is removed from the pack and buried the 
horse's hair is allowed to grow long again. As soon as the people stop 



JRead in this connection the article by Miss Fletcher ou "The Sliadow: or. Gho.st Lodge: a Cere- 
inonv of the Ogallala Sious." Rept. of I'eabodv Mn.seiini, vol. ir, pp. 29(i. :t()7. 



488 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

to encamp the ghost lodge is set up before any of the others. The articles 
which are kept there remain for a specified time, perhaps for several 
years, during which period certain ceremonies are performed. At the 
end of the allotted time comes the ghost feast, the Waecuijpi or Waki- 
cagapi, when the ghost pack is opened and the ghost taken out and 
buried. Then all the people assemble, setting up their tents near the 
ghost lodge. The kindred of the deceased weep and bring food to the 
place. All this food has been boiled. They set up in the ground some 
forked sticks, such as are used for digging wild turnips, and straight 
poles are laid along the forked sticks. On the poles are hung mocca- 
sins, and in the space between the forked sticks are piled blankets, 
buffalo robes, calico, untanned skin bags, tanned bags, porcupine (piills, 
wild turnips, and fruits.' These are distributed by women, and the peo- 
ple spend the time pleasantly. They also give presents to the young 
women. If the deceased was a male and a member of an order of 
young men, all who belong to it are invited to a feast (there was a simi- 
lar custom among the Ponka, in 1872), where they sing songs. When 
they stop singing they sit with bodies erect, but with bent head and 
stooping shoulders. Then the parents of the dead youth enter the 
lodge, weeping as they pass around the circle, and each one places 
both hands on the head of each guest, because the son, who regarded 
the men as his friends, is no longer present. If the deceased is a 
female, only the women assemble, except some men who lead the sing- 
ing. If horses take part in the ceremonies, their manes and tails 
are shaved short, and they, too, receive gifts. Here and there one of 
the kindred of the deceased gives away all his property, and then the 
bag is opened and the hair or ghost is taken out and buried. From this 
time the parting with his parents is absolute. They think that, until 
the hair is buried, the deceased is really present with the household, 
and that when this burial takes place he dies a second time. After 
this burial the kindred put on their usual clothing, and while they weep 
for the dead at intervals they are at liberty to anoint and decorate them- 
selves according to fancy. 

Another account of Bushotter states that when they prepare for the 
ghost feast they redden the sack containing the hair and hang the war 
bonnet of feathers on the three poles at right angles with the ghost sack. 
They wish to remember his deeds in war, so they also stick one end of 
his war spear in the ground, with its top leaning against the toi)S of the 
three poles. His shield is suspended from one of the poles. Tlie three 
pipes on the shield in a colored sketch prepared by Bushotter denote that 
on so many ex])editi()ns the deceased warrior carried a war pipe. The 
red stripes declare how many of the enemy were wounded by him, and 
the human heads show the number of foes that he killed. The half-moon 
means that he shouted at his foes on a certain night. Once he threw 



' These tilings are probably given by the kindred of the deceased, but Bushotter has not so informed 



noRSEY.] GOOD AND BAD GHOSTS. 489 

aside Lis arms and engaged in a band-to-hand struggle with a foe; this 
is shown by the Imman hand. The horse-traeks indicate that he ran off 
with so many horses. If his iiame was lilack Hawk, for instance, a 
bhick hawk was painted in tlie middle of his shield. 

All these things are arranged before they open the bag containing 
the liair. Then they enter the lodge, and there they open all the things 
that they have brought. The kindred of the deceased are the only ones 
to enter the lodge, and when they see the hair taken from the sack they 
scream suddenly for a minute or two. It is at this time that they dis- 
tribute the gifts. Food has been boiled in many kettles, and is now 
divided among the jieople not the kindred of the deceased, who are scat- 
tered around the ghost lodge, and some food is usually given to the 
young men of the order to which the deceased belonged. 

A woman who attends to collecting the food, calico, bags, clothing, 
etc., turns to the four posts of thescattbld in succession, and utters one 
of the following sayings or prayers at each post: "If the ghosts eat 
this, may I live long!" or "May the ghosts eat this, and I obtain many 
horses !" or "If my nephew {or niece) eats this, may some one give me 
many presents ! " This woman is careful to put the best part of the 
food on the bowl or dish under the scaffold near the head of the corpse.' 
Should any one eat before the food has been put aside for the ghost, all 
the ghosts become angry with him, and they are sure to punish him; 
they will make him drop his food Just before it reaches his mouth, or 
they will spill the water when he tries to drink, and sometimes they 
cause a man to gash himself with a knife. 

GOOD AND 15A1) GHOSTS. 

§ 277. Some ghosts are beneficent, but most of them are maleficent. 
They know all things, even the thoughts of living people. They are 
glad when the wind blows. Bushotter's younger brother was crazy at 
one time, and a doctor or pezuta wic'-asa said that the sickness had been 
caused by a ghost. 

INTERCOURSE WITH GHOSTS. 

$ 278. Lynd says : The belief in the powers of some Dakotas to call up and con- 
verse with the spirits of the dead is strong in some, thongli not ^reneral. They fre- 
quently make feasts to those spirits and elicit information from them of distant 
friends and relatives. Assembling at night in a lodge, they smoke, put out the fire, 
and then, drawing their blankets over their heads, remain singing in unison in a 
low key until the s])irit gives th«'m a jdcture. This they pretend the spirit does; 
and many a hair-erecting tale is told of the spirit's power to reveal, and the after 
confirmation.- 

GHOST STORIES. 

A few ghost stories of the Teton collection will now be given. 

'In ouo of his papers Bualiotter saya that it is tho mother of the deceased pprson who deposits the 
food under the scaffold and utters tlie prayers. John Bruyier, a half-blood Teton from Cheyenne 
River A^eney, South Dakota, never heard the petition about tho horses, for if parents obtained horses 
after the death of their son, they gave them away. 

■^Miuu. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. n, pt. 2, p. (iO. 



4,90 A STTDY - A^ CULtS. 

5 37^. 7 '. — ^A y«. - - - beJx>re marry- 

" ; loTed. ^_. --- - -^ deiirh. so she 

:ii«re with, a dull knifie. and gasiiedh-er Miiibs, just 
aisiisjir - ' ^rarned and took her for 

his wile. _._.:- :_- : - - : - ' ^ night the ghost's -wife 

pitched her tent at some distance Jroca. the others, and wfc^a the people 
: - -•'.'' V- - s«3nie distance 

1 _ - - \-_- zijin what todo; 

and he brtm^ht game to her regnlarlT, whieh the wife gaye to tlie people 

~ ' ' "rr see nor hear 

- - li -^«iys sent word 

u? the tribe when there was to I3e a high wind or heavy rain. He eonld 

:- ---_-- /-: -■'-; — -•; - -': " ' ^'iie Hecd ROt speifc 3 woid to hinL, 

_. . - _ _ he 5»3on obtained it for her. 

3i».». Ike soiizmry vrareier. — Lm€e a solitary traveler was overtaken 
v_ - _-.._.. -;-----.__ T^^._,_.. - -.^j. aKHrest. So he remained there for 

_^ _ i, light in tLe woods, and when he 

rHUririied tht sp«,»c. ctenoid- Liie^^:^ was a sweat lodge, in which were two 

pers«:tni3 lal kri ng. One said. ■- Friend, some one has come and stands 

wiihoiir. Let ns invite l^trn to share our food. " The listener fled snd- 

. - - :^him- Though he looked 

.. __.:_._._ . ' -7 :_-ji: so he ran with all his 

misht towards a hfn, and es^jaoed from them. As he was ascending a 

^ .He 

■ T ; - :_ r . : - - - - -^ - "-: ----- sooner 

had he thought aboiot: the woman than she appeared by his ^de, sayiag, 

- " " - - " - - - - ■ ^ •-,--■_"- " - - -,-. ^ 

:- - - - - - - :a% 

else yoa will never see me again. ^ So they weat (m ^lentiy tiB day- 
break. ^ - ----- - - - _ - -• • : ' ,tbe seen. 

thoiogh > - . . :., the m^n 

thought. ~ Wnat ii she shociid cho-ke me ? ~ Immediately the woman 
disappear- ' ' - -'■-- — '- ^ ^ '245). 

a 281, . — - 'i%y. when, the people were hunting 

" a hilL He wore a winter robe, 

_-_-.- .:,- -iescendrog the hiTI the people 

-^ermtinne^i to advance. The yooiig men rushed 

'ro-ws. They could not see his face. 

-- , - - - - : : ; - .-- .irrow passed by him (m one side or 

the other. So they finally lied, as he was a gh««t. 

- - ■" — - _• man went 

- . .......... -._„:ts, encoan- 

tertng many difiexilties, -^ not deter him firo«EL hi* imdertaking- 

'' ' - . ■ -I 

onehailoo. bebfjiit, it wa^ an owL By and by he drew near SiUfjthet 



^ r-; -i . V 



KrtS^Rs 



492 A STUDY OF ftlOUAN CULTS. 

hands, which pained the man, but this mattered not. He tried to push 
ofl' the ghost, whose legs were very powerful. When the ghost was 
brought near the fiie, he became weak, but when he managed to pull the 
man towards the darkness, hebecame very strong. As the flregot low 
the strength of the ghost increased. Just as the man began to grow 
weary the day broke. Then the struggle was renewed. As they drew 
near the fire the man made a desperate effort, and with his foot he 
pushed a firebrand suddenly into the fire. As the fire blazed again, 
the ghost fell just as if he was coming to pieces. So the man won, and 
the ghost's prophecy was fulfilled; he subsequently killed a foe, and 
stole some horses. For that reason people have believed whatever the 
ghosts have said. 

§ 283. The man irho shot a gliost. — In the olden time a man was travel- 
ing alone, and in a forest he killed several rabbits. After sunset he was 
in the midst of the forest, so he made a fire, as he had to spend the 
night there. He thought thiTS: '^ Should I encounter any danger by 
and by, I have this gun, and I am a man who ought not to regard any- 
thing." He cooked a rabbit and satisfied his hunger. Just then he 
heard many voices, and they were talking about their own affairs, but 
the man could see nobody. So he thought, ''It seems that now at 
length I have encountered ghosts." Then he went and lay under a 
fallen tree, which was at a great distance from the fire. He loaded his 
gun with powder only, as he knew by this time that they were really 
ghosts. They came round about him and whistled, "Hyu, hyn, hyu!" 
He has gone yonder," said one of the ghosts. They came and stood 
around the man, just as people do when they hunt rabbits. The man 
lay flat beneath the fallen tree, and one ghost came and climbed on the 
trunk of that tree. Suddenly the ghost gave the cry uttered on hitting 
an enemy, "A'^-he!" and he kicked the man on the back. But before 
the ghost could get away, the man shot at him and wounded him in 
the legs; so the ghost gave the male cry of pain, " Au ! an ! au !" And 
finally he went oft' crying as females do, " Yuij ! yuij ! yuij !" And the 
other ghosts said to him; " Where did he shootf And the wounded 
one said : "He shot me thr<mgh the head and I have come apart," Then 
the other ghosts were wailing on the hillside. The man decided to go 
to the place where they were wailing. So, as the day had come, he 
went thither, and fimnd some graves, one of which a wolf had dug into 
so that the bones were visible, and there was a wound in the skull. 

ASSINNIBOIN 15KLIEFS ABOUT GHOSTS. 

§ 284. Smet says : ' 

The belief in ghosts is very profouud, and common to all these tribes. Indians 
liave often told me that they have met, seen, and conversed with them, and that they 
may be heard almost every night in the places where the dead are interred. They 
say that they speak in a kind of whistling tone. Sometimes they contract the face 
fof a human being whom they meet] like that of a person in an epileptic fit.' 



' AVestern Missions aud Missionaries, p. 140. 



DORSEv.l PRAYEKy TO THE DEAD. 493 

The As.sinniboiiies iievi-r pi'ouoinu-e tlie UiiiiH^ of 'I'chatkii [i. e., (''atka, or, Left Haud, 
a former chief] but with respect. 'I'iiey believe that his shade ■>uards tiie sacred tree ; 
that lie has ])ower to procure theui abundauce of buffalo aud other animals, or to drive 
the aTiimals from the country. Hence, wiienever they i)ass they offer sacrifices ; they 
present the calumet to the tutelary spirits and manes of Tchatka. He is, according 
to their calendar, the Waii-kou-taugka par excellence, the greatest niau or genius 
that ever visited their nation.' 

PKAYEKS TO TIIK DEAD, INCHIDINCi ANCESTORS. 

§ 285. Riggs sayvsHluit the Dakota i)ray to the spirits of tlicir de- 
ceased relatives. [See §§ 67-71.] Aud in his aecouut of the Assiuui- 
boiii, Smet says: 

The Assinuiboines esteem greatly a religious custom of assembling once or twice a 
year around the graves of their immediate relatives. These graves are on scaffolds 
about 7 or 8 feet above the surface of the ground. The Indians call their dead by 
name and offer to them meats carefully dressed, which they place beside them. The 
ceremony of burying the dead is terminated with tears, wailings, bowlings, and mace- 
rations of all present. They tear the hair, gash the legs, aud at last they light the 
calumet, for that is the Alpha and Omega of every rite. They offer it to the shades 
of the departed and entreat them not to injure the living. During their ceremonicms 
repasts, in their excursions, aud even at a great distance from their graves, they send 
to the dead puffs of tobacco smoke and burn little pieces of meat as a sacrifice to 
their memory. 

$286. Before consulting the tutelary spirits [see ^S 34] or addressing the dead, they 
begin by kindling the sacred tire. This fire must be struck from a flint, or it must 
reach them mysteriously l)y lightning, or in some other way. To light the sacred 
fire with a common tire Avould be considered among them as a grave aud daugerous 
transgression.^ 

METAMORPHOSES AND THE TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS. 

^ 287. They believe in transformations, such as are described in Ovid, and they 
think that many of the stars are men and women translated to the heavens. They 
believe in the transmigration of souls. Some of the medicine men profess to tell of 
what occurred to them in bodies previously inhabited for at least six generations 
back. [See ^^ 260, 267.] 

EXHORTATIONS TO ABSENT WARRIORS. 

§ 288, Among the Teton it has been customary for those remaining 
at home to make songs about theabsent warriors, callingthem by name, 
as if they could hear the speakers. This Dakota custom agrees with 
what has been recorded of the Omaha/ 

Bushotter has told of another Teton custom. The kiudred of a slain 
warrior make songs in his honor, and sing them as they mourn for his 
death. 

MYSTERIOIS MEN AND WOMEN. 

§ 289. Lynd says : 

Certain men profess to liave an unusual amount of the wakau or divine principle in 
them. By it they assume the w orking of miracles, laying on of hands, curing of the 



' Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 204. ' Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 243. 
'Am. Antiq.. vol. v, 1883, p. 149. * Om. Sociology, Third Ann. Kept. Bur. Etb., p. 325. 



494 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

sick, aud many Avonderful operations. Home of these persons pretend to a recollection 
of former states of existence, even naming the particular body in which they formerly 
lived. Others assert their power over nature, and their faculty of seeing into futurity, 
and of conversing with the deities. A third class will talk of the particular animals 
whose bodies they intend to enter when loosed from their present existence [v>v3 260, 
267, 287]. In endeavoring to sustain these pretensions they occasionally go through 
performances which are likely to deceive the ignorant throng.' 
Pond wrote thus of tlie Dakota wakaij men :^ 

They do not spring into existence under ordinary operations of natural laws, but, 
according to their faith, these men and women (for females, too, are wakan) first 
arouse to conscious existence in the form of winged seeds, such as the thistle, and are 
wafted by the * * * influence of the four winds till they are conducted to the 
abode of some Taku Wakan, by whom they are received into intimate communion. 
They remain there till they become acquainted with the character and abilities of 
the class of gods whose guests they happen to be, aud until they have iiubibed their 
spirits, and are acquainted with all the chants, feasts, dances, and rites which the gods 
deem necessary to impose on men. Thus do some of them pass through a series of 
inspirations with different classes of divinities, till they are fully wakauized and 
prepared for human incarnation. They are invested with the invisible wakan powers 
of the gods, their knowledge and cunning, andtheiromnipresent influenceover mind, 
instinct, and passions. They are taught to inflict diseases and heal them, discover 
concealed causes, manufacture implements of war, and impart to them the ton-wan 
power of the gods; and also the art of nuiking such an application of paints that they 
will protect from the powers of the enemies. This i)roces8 of inspiration is called 
"dreaming of the gods." Thus prepared and retaining his primitive form, the demi- 
god rides forth on the wings of the wind over * * * the earth, till he has carefully 
observed the characters and usages of the different tribes of men ; then, selecting his 
location, he enters one about to become a mother, and, in due time, makes his ap- 
pearance among men. * * * When one of these wakan men dies he returns to 
the abode of his god, from whom he receives a new inspiration, after which he passes 
through another incarnation as before, and serves another generation. In this man- 
ner they pass through four incarnations, * * * aud then return to their original 
nothingness. 

§ 290. There are different persons who regard themselves as wakaij, 
says Bnshotter. Among these are those who practice medicine, those 
wlio act as Heyoka, those who boil for the grizzly bear feasts, those 
who take part in the mystery dance, those who foretell the future, those 
who detect wrong-doers and tind what has been lost or stolen, and those 
who do various things in a cunning manner. It happens thus to them : 
A man hears a human voice during the day and he does what the voice 
directs to be done, or on a certain night a tree converses with him, and 
the two talk about their own affairs, and what the tree tells him to do, 
that he does, so he says, or, it orders him to keep some law or custom 
as long as he lives. Among these superstitious notions are the follow- 
ing : Some men direct the pipe to be handed around the lodge from the 
left side to the right, and others vice versa. Some men dare not gash a 
firebrand with a knife; and should a visitor do so heedlessly, they say 
that he " cuts his finger. " Others will not kill a swallow, lest thunder 
and hail ensue. Some do not allow a knife to be passed above a kettle. 

'Minn. Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. n, pt. 2, p. 70. 

2 Pond, in Schoolcraft, Ind. Tribes, vol. VI, pp. 652. 1857. 



DOKSEY.I MYSTERIOUS MEN AND WOMEN. 495 

§ 21)1. The wakau meu claim that they are iuvuluerablc. To prove 
this they assemble at stated intervals, having iiainted themselves in 
various styles. Each one has a flute susi)ended over the chest by a 
necklace. They wear long breechcloths, and march in single file. Two 
meu armed with bows and arrows rush suddenly towards the waken men 
and shoot at them; but instead of wounding them they merely bend 
the arrows ! Sometimes the men fire guns at them, Imt the bullets fall 
to the ground, and when they are examined they are flattened ! No 
visible mark of a wound can be found on the bodies of these wakan 
men, though \\'hen they were hit by the bullet or arrow bl;)od pours 
from their mouths. After they wash off the paint from their bodies 
their flesh becomes tender and is vulnerable. This is the excuse urged 
when an ordinary [)erson succeeds in wounding a wakan man. It is 
supposed that the wakan men rub themselves with some kind of medi- 
cine known only to themselves, making them invulnerable, and that 
perhaps the bullets or arrows are rubbed with the medicine prior to the 
shooting. It is also supposed that the playing of the flute aids in 
rendering them invulnerable. (See § 30(), etc.) 

§ 292. Bushotter names two kinds of Dakota doctors — the Mato 
wapiya, or Grizzly Bear doctor, who is very wakan, and the Pezuta 
wapiya, or Pezuta wicasa, the doctor who prescribes roots. The person 
who practices medicine claims to have had interviews with the spirits, 
but he never reveals what the spirits have told him, though he says that 
immediately after the revelation made him by the spirit he begins to 
act according to its directions. And in some cases of sickness this 
doctor takes the flesh of the patient into his mouth and makes a suck- 
ing sound while inhaling, and from the patient's side he pretends to 
remove something. When he has made the sucking sound after taking 
the flesh into his mouth, or when he has taken blood or something else 
from the side of the patient, he spits it from his mouth. Then he sees 
the patient's mother, whom he tells what is the cause of the disease, 
and whether the patient will recover or die. Such doctors pretend to 
have within themselves one of the following : A small red hawk, a com- 
mon woodpecker, a real buftalo, a rattlesnake, or a grizzly bear. And 
when one of these doctors kicks on the ground there is heard some- 
thing within him, singing in a beautiful voice; and so the i)eople be- 
lieve what the doctors say about diseases. 

§ 21);3. When the doctor has sucked the patient's flesh a long time 
without removing anything, he asks a favor of the mysterions being 
dwelling within himself, and then that being cries out often, and the 
doctor succeeds in his efforts. It is by the aid of these mysterious 
beings that the doctors are enabled to practice medicine. In the olden 
time one of the doctors was very mysterious. Once, when he was 
practicing, a bowl of water was set down before him. He vomited into 
the bowl and a water-snake appeared in it. But when the do(!tor opened 
his mouth again the snake glided gently into it and disappeared down 



49 G A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

his throat. Such exliibitioiis by the doctors have been observed by the 
Indians, who are constrained to believe what the doctors claim for tliem- 
selves. And because tliey believe that the doctors are very mysteri- 
ous, the latter are able to gather together many possessions as pay for 
their services. Therefore the men and women doctors try to excel one 
another in their skill, as it pays them so well. 

§ 294. A "pezuta wicasa" told Bushotter to say to his step-father 
that his son, Bushotter's younger brother, had been made crazy by a 
ghost. The doctor came and fumigated the patient, and after he felt a 
little better he sucked at the boy's chest and drew out some blood. 
He resumed the operation, and then declared that there was in the 
boy's side a iiat object resembling a serpent, the removal of which 
would insure the boy's recovery. The doctor was promised a horse if 
he would attend the patient nntil he cured him. Acting by his direc- 
tions, Bushotter's elder brother caught a large catfish, of the species 
called "howasapa," and handed it to his step-father, who offered a 
prayer and marked the fish with a knife on the top of the head. After 
this the fish was cooked, and the sick boy ate it and recovered liis 
health. It was after this that the same boy was cured by invoking the 
Dawn and offering sacrifice, as related in § 215. 

GOPHER LORE. 

§ 295. Scrofulous sores on the neck under the jaw are said to be 
caused by gophers. These animals can shoot at persons in a nuigical 
way with the tip of a species of grass, wounding them very mysteriously, 
the injured person being unconscious of the harm done till some time 
has elapsed. The place swells, splits open, and becomes very bad, 
affecting even the face of the sufferer. Few doctors can cure it. He 
who can relieve the patient pretends to extract pieces of grass from 
the neck, and then the person begins to recover. The people are so 
afraid of gophers that they go around the camp with their hands over 
their jaws. ISTo one dares to go near a gopher hill except he or she be a 
mysterious person. Such a one can go near it and even touch it with 
impunity, as he has different remedies at his command. 

CAUSES OF BOILS AND SORES. 

§ 296. Whoever gets into the habit of eating the large intestine of 
cattle, known as the tasiyaka, is sure to " be hit by a siyaka," i. e., he 
will have a boil.^ Siyaka is the name of the grebe or dabchick, but 
what connection there is between the bird and the boil has not been 
learned. The boil will be on some covered part of the body, not on the 
hands or face. The Teton fear to go outside of their lodges at night 
lest the cause of boils be blown to them. If a man eats the liver of a 
female dog, or if a woman eats that of a male dog, the face of the 
offender will break out in sores. 



' See Coutr. to N. A. Ethn. vol. ix, pp. 146, 149. 



HORSEY] SECRET SOCIETIES. 497 

RESULTS OF LYING, STEALING, ETC. 

§ 297. Warts betray a bad person, one given to stealing. If the skin 
of the hard^ pahite peels off, it is said that the person is untruthful. 
When the Teton doubt a man's word, they ask him to open his mouth 
and let them see his hard palate. He who makes a practice of eating 
the calves of the legs of any species of animal will have a cramp in 
the muscles of his own legs. When one wishes to extract the marrow 
from a bone, lie takes care not to split the bone in two, lest his own 
legs should be in frequent pain, or he should become lame. 

SECRET SOCIETIES. 

§ 298. The Dakota use "ihaijbla" or ''ihaijmda" as the Omaha and 
Ponka do " i(|;a'e(e," todescribethe mysterious communications received 
from the animals and spirits (§§ 8, 43-52). 

Among the Siouan family of Indians there are societies, religious in character, 
which aredistinguishedby thenaiue of some animal. Each society has a ritual com- 
posed of chants and songs to be sung during different parts of the ceremonies, having 
words describing in simple and direct terms the act which accompanies the music. 
These musical rituals, it is often claimed, have been received in a mysterious or su- 
pernatural manner, and are therefore regarded as possessing a religious power '* * " 
Some societies admit women to membership, through their own visions, or occasion- 
ally by those of their husbands', but more generally by means of the visions of male 
relatives. * * * Membership in these societies is not contiued to any particular 
gens, or gi-ouping of geutes, but <lepends upon supernatural indications over which 
the individual has no control. The animal which appears to a man in a vision during 
his religious fasting determines to which society he must belong.' 

§ 299. Those having visions or revelations from ghosts are called 
Wanagi ihaijblapi kiij. It is such persons who can draw pictures of 
ghosts with impunity. It is also said that the only persons who have 
their faces drawn awry by the ghosts are the members of this order. 
(See § 275.) 

§ 300. Bushotter's step-father belongs to the Tataijg ihaijblapi kiij, 
or the Society of those who have Eevelations from the Buffalo, answer- 
ing to the Omaha j^e ifa'efe-ma (§§ 43, 50). In one of his visions he saw 
a buffalo with cocklebur down in his hair, so the man subsequently 
put such down in his own hair in imitation of the buffalo. One night 
he saw (probably in a vision) a bison going toward the south with a 
hoop on his head. So the man painted a small hoop red all over and 
wore it on his head, giving his nephew the name (Jaijgleska waijyaijg 
mani. He Walks In-sight-of a Hooj). 

§ 301. Some Dakota belong to the Heciijskayapi ihaijblapi kiij, or the 
Society of those who have Eevelations from Ooa-ts. Goats are very 
mysterious, as they walk on cliffs and other high places; and those who 
dream of goats or have revelations from them imitate their actions. 
Such men can find their way up and down cliffs, the rocks get soft un- 



■Miss Fletcher: Elk Mystery oftlio Ogallala Sioiix; in Ann. Kept. IViibody Miiaeiun, 18S4. pp. 276. 
277. 

11 ETH 32 



498 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

der their feet, eiiabling- tbem to maintain a foothold, but they close up 
behind them, leaving no trail. Members of the Wakaij wacipi, or the 
Order of tlie Mystery Dance, commonly called the medicine dance, are 
also reckoned among the mysterious or " wakai) " people (see §113). 
One of Bushotter's texts relates to this order. Another of his articles 
tells of the Miwatani okolaki6iye kiij or The Mandan Society, which 
used to be called Oai)te tiijza okolakiciye, or Society of the Stout 
Hearted Ones. It is now known as Kai)gi yuha, Keeps the Eaven. 
For a notice of this order, see §§ 194, 195. 

§ 302. The report of thePeabody Museum of American Archaeology 
and Ethnology for 1884 contains an article on the Elk Mystery or Fes- 
tival of the Oglala, a division of the Teton Dakota (pp. 27G-288). 
Those who have visions of the elk are the Hehaka ihaijblapi kiij. 
Bushotter has recorded articles on different societies as follows • Big 
Belly Society, Ihoka and Tokala (animal) Societies, Dog Society, Katela 
or Taniga icu Society, Grizzly Bear Dance, and Xight Dance ; but we 
have no means of learning whether any or all of them are composed of 
persons who had visions of animals. 

FETICHISM. 

PUBLIC OR TRIBAL FETICHES. 

§ 303. Among these may be included the Bear Butte, referred to in 
§137: and any white buffalo hide, such as has been described in "The 
White Buffalo Festival of the Uncpapas."^ 

Smet gives a description of a gathering of all the Assiuiboin, and a 
religious festival lasting several days : 

Oiferiugs are placed on perches that are fastened to the tops of posts supporting 
certain bnffalo skin lodges. A tall pole is erected in the middle of the circle (it ig 
between 30 and 40 feet high), and to it they fasten the medicine bags, containing the 
idols, their arrows, quivers, trophies won from their enemies, especially scalps. 
Men, women, and children join in raising and planting the pole, amid the acclama- 
tions of the tribe. ^ 

PRIVATE OR PERSONAL FETICHES. 

§ 304. Smet also tells us that "A Sioux chief has his war wakaij, the 
colored picture of the Eussian general, Diebitsch." ^ In speaking of 
the Assinniboin, the same author states: 

Each savage who considers himself a chief or warrior possesses what he calls his 
wah-kon, in which he ai)pears to place all his confidence. This consists of a stuffed 
bird, a weasel's skin, or some little bone or the tooth of an animal; sometimes it is a 
little stone or a fantastical figure, represented by little beads or by a coarsely jiainted 
picture. Tliese charms or talismans accompany them on all their expeditions for war 
or hunting — they never lay them aside. In every difficulty or peril they invoke the 
protection and assistance of their wah-kon, as though these idols could really preserve 



' Miss Fletcher in Kept. Peabody Museum. Vol. IT. pp. 260-275. 
2 Western Missions and Missionaries, p. 136. 
^Ibid.. p. 46. 



^°^'^^' SORCERY AND JUGGLERY. 499 

them from all misfortunes. If any accident befalls an i<lol or charm, if it is broken 
or lost It .s enough to arrest the most intrepid chief or warrior in his expedition, and 
make him abandon the moat importaT.t enterprise in ^yhich he may be engaged.' 

We may also reckon amoug the personal fetiches the wolidure''of each 
wamor (see the Armor ^ocl, § § 122-5), and perhaps the use of the 
imtipi or SAveat lodge, and the wild sage or Artemisia, by each of which 
personal purification is supposed to be effected. 

ORDEALS OR MODES OF SWEARING. 

§ 305. While there are no oaths or curses as we have them, the Teton 
can invoke higher powers. Thus one may say: "The Thunderers hear 
uie" (Wajiiij'yaij namahuijwe 16, The Flying one really hears me!), and 
if he IS lying the Thunderers or one of their number will be sure to kill 
him. Sometimes the man will put a knife in his mouth, and then if he 
lies he will be stuck by a knife thereafter, and death must follow. Or 
he will say, "The horse heard me'' (^uij'kawakaij' namaliuij we 16)' 
knowing that the penalty for falsehood will be certain death from a horse 
that will throw him and break his neck. When one says, "The Earth 
hears me" (Maka kiij le namaliuij we 16), and he lies, he is sure to die 
miserably in a short time, and his tamily will also be afflicted. 

Smet says:'^ 

The objectsby which an Assinniboiue swears are his gun, the skin of a rattlesnake, 
a bear's claw, and the wah-kou that the Indian interrogates. These various articles 
are placed before him, and he says, "In case my declaration prove false, may my gun 
fire and kill me, may the serpent bite me, may the bears tear and devour my flesh, 
and may my wah-kon overwhelm me with misery. " In extraordinary and very im- 
portant affairs, which demand formal promises, they call upon the Thunder to wit- 
ness their resolution of accomplishing the articles proposed and accepted. 

SORCERY AND JUGGLERY. 

§ 306. As among the Omaha and other Siouan tribes, so among- the 
Dakota do we find traces of the practice of sorcery, and there is a special 
word in the Dakota dictionary: "limuijga, to cause sickness or death, 
as the Dakotas pretend to be able to do, in a supernatural way— to be- 
witch—kill by enchantment." The syllable " Hmuij" seems to convey 
the idea of humming, buzzing-, or muttering. 

Jugglery or sleight-of hand performances are resorted to by the mys- 
terious men and women. (See §§ 64-60, 291-4.) Some of these practition- 
ers claim to possess the art of making love-charms, sucli potions being 
sold to women who desire to attract particular men of their acquaint- 
ance. When a woman obtains such a medicine, she uses it in one of 
two ways. Sometimes she touches the man on his blanket with the 
medicine, at others she persuades the man to give her a piece of chew- 
ing gum, which she touches with the medicine. Then she seizes him, 
and he can not escape from her, even should he wish to leave her. So 
he is obliged to marry her. 



'Western Missinns and Missionaries, p. 141. ^ Ibid., p. 143. 



500 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

OMENS. 

HoniLY OMENS. 

§ 307. Kiugiiig iu one ear siguifies oue of two things. Some one will 
come without his family, and he must be entertained, or you will hear 
news. The direction whence the person or news will come is shown by 
the ear that is affected. 

If the eye twitches involuntarily some one will weep. If any other 
part of the body twitches involuntarily some one will hit the person 
there or he will be stabbed or shot there. If the palm of the hand 
twitches often he will soon strike some one, or else he will become angry. 
When a woman has a son sick somewhere, or if he has been killed on 
the way home, her breasts are often very painful. 

If one sneezes once his special friend or fellow, his son or his wife 
has named him; so the sneezer calls out, <'My sou." If he sneezes 
twjce he exclaims, " My son and his mother!" 

ANIMAL OMENS. 

§ 308. When whip-poor wills sing together at night, saying, "Hohiij, 
hohii)," one says in reply, "IS^o." Should the birds stop at once it is a 
sign that the answering person must die soon. But if the birds con- 
tinue singing the man will live a long time.^ 

The uijgnagicala (gray screech owl) fortells cold weather. When the 
night is to be very cold this owl cries out, so the Teton say, just as if a 
person's teeth chattered. When its cry is heard, all the people wrap 
themselves in their thickest robes and put plenty of wood on the fires. 

The Ski-bi-bi-la is a small gray bird, with a black head, and spotted 
here and there on the breast. It dwells in the forest, and is said to 
answer the person who calls to it. When this bird says, " Gli huij wo," 
i. e., " Has it returned!" the people rejoice, knowing that the spring is 
near. When a boy hears this bird ask the question, he runs to his 
mother and learns from her that he must reply, "No; it has not yet 
returned." The reason for giving this reply has not been obtained. 

When the people first hear the cry of the night hawk iu the spring, 
they begin to talk of going to hunt the buffalo, because when the night 
hawks return the buffalo have become fat again, and the birds bring 
the news, for they never cry in vain. 

OMENS FKOM DREAMS. 

^ 309. There are some animals which are esteemed as briugiug better fortuuea than 
others. Hawks are hicky. Bears are not so good, as the bear is slow and clumsy, 
and apt to be wounded ; and although savage when cornered, is not as likely as some 
animals to escape harm. Among some tribes in this family of Indians to dream ol 
the moon is regarded as a grave calamity.- See ^ 30. 

•This is also an Omalia belief. 

• Miss Fletcher. 'Elk Mystery of the Ogalalla Sioux," in Kept. Peabody Museum, Vol. Ill, p. 2S1 
note. 



CHAPTER VI. 

. CULTS OF THE MANDAN, HIDATSA, AND SAPONA. 
AUTHORITIES. 

§ 310. This chapter contains no original material, but is a compilation 
made from the following works for the convenience of the reader: 

Byrcl (^Ym.), History of the Uivicliug line (1729), vol. i. Repriut : Kichmond, 
Va.J 1866. 

U. S. Geol. aud Geogr. Surv., Miscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethuog. and riiilol. of 
Hidatsa Indians. By Washington Matthews. 

James's Account of Long's Exped., to Rocky Mountains, Phil., 1823, vol. i. 

Lewis and Clarke's Exped., ed. Allen, Dublin, 1817, vol. i. 

The George Catlin Indian Gallery * * * Thomas Donaldson : Smithson. Rept., 
1885, pt. 2, appendix. 

Travels in " * * North America, by Maximilian, Prince of Wied. Trans, by 
H. Evans Lloyd, London, 1843. 

ALLEGED BELIEF IN A GREAT SPIRIT. 

§ 311. As among the Dakota, so among the Mandan and Hidatsa, we 
find that some of the earlier writers assert that the religion of the 
Indians under consideration " consists in the belief in one Great 
Spirit.''' 

But such as.sertions are closely followed by admissions which explain 
the mistake of the writer: "Great Spirit" is synonymous with "Great 
Medicine," a name applied to everything which they do not compre- 
hend. Among the Mandan, "each individual selects for himself the 
•particular object of his devotion, which is termed his medicine, and is 
either some visible being, or more commonly some animal." 

THE GREAT MYSTERY A MODERN DEITY. 

Matthews states of the Hidatsa: 

Many claim that the Great Spirit, or, more properly, the Great Mystery, is a deity 
of the modern Indian only. I have certainly heard some old and very conservative 
Minnetarees speak of Mahopa as if they meant thereby an influence or power above 
all other things, but not attaching to it any ideas of ])ersonality. It would now be 
perhaps impossible to make a just analysis of their original conceptions in this 
matter.^ 



' Lewis and Clarke's Exped., cd., Alleu, vol. I, p. 174. 

2U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.. Uaydeu. Miscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethnog. and I'hilol. of Hidatsa 
Indians, p. 48. 



501 



502 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS 

POLYTHEISM. 

Instead of believing in one Great Spirit, the Mandan and Hidatsa 
"believe in a multitude of different beings in the heavenly bodies ; 
offer sacrifices to them; invoke their assistance on every occasion; 
howl, lament, fast, inflict on themselves acts of penance to propitiate 
these spirits; and, above all, lay very great stress upon dreams.^ 

§ 312. The most sacred objects in the eyes of the Crow or Absaroka, 
a nation closely related to the Hidatsa, are "the sun, the moon, and 
tobacco, that is, the leaves of the genuine tobacco {Mcotiana); and all 
their children wear a small portion of this herb, well wrapped up, round 
their neck, by way of an amulet. ^ 

WORSHIP. 

§ 313. Pull information respecting worship Las not been obtained; 
but we know that among its accessories are the following : prayer, fast- 
ing, and sacrifice. The different writers tell us of petitions offered to 
the gods for help, 

FASTING. 

§ 314. When a young Mandan wishes to establish his reputation as 
a brave man, he fasts for four or seven days, as long as he is able, goes 
to the bluffs, cries to the Omahank-Xumakshi, calls incessantly on the 
higher powers for aid, and goes home at night to sleep and dream. 
They fast before taking part in the Okipa, before organizing a war 
party, etc.^ 

SACRIFICE. 

§ 315. Said a Mandan to Lewis and Clarke, " I was lately owner of 
seventeen horses, but I have offered them all up to my medicine, and 
am now ])oor." He had taken all his horses to the plain, where he 
turned them loose, committing them to the care of his "medicine," thus 
abandoning them forever.* 

"Around the burial scaffolds of the Mandan s were several high 
poles, with skins and other things hanging on them, as offerings to the 
lord of life, Omahank-Numakshi, or to the first man, Kumank-Ma- 
chana."'* 

§ 310. The Olipa. — That form of self-sacrifice called Okipa by the 
Mandan has been described in detail by Catlin and Maximilian. It 
differs in some respects from the sun dance of the Dakota and Ponka, 
as well as from the Dahpike or Nahpike of the Hidatsa.** 

' Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, p. 359. 
•-Ibid, p. 176. 

3Ibid, pp. 369, 374, 386, 388, 400. 
*Ibi(l, p. 174. 
nhu\. p. 173. 

^Ibid, pp. 373,377. 0-kee-pa: A Religious Ceremony * * * by George Catlin, Phil., 1867, 25 
pp. Smithson. Kept., 1885, pt. 2, pp. 353-368. 



^^^-^-^■l THE DAHPIKE. . 503 

§ 317. The DaHpik-e.—Accovding to Matthews, the most importaut 
ceremony of the Ilidatsa is that of— 

The Dalipike or Nalipike, whiili formerly took place regularly once a year, but is 
now celebrated every second or third year only. On the day when it is determined 
to begin this ceremony, some of the men, dressed and mounted as for a war-party, 
proceed to the woods. Here they select a tall, forked Cottonwood, which they fell, 
trim, and bark ; to this they tie lariats, and, by the aid of horses, drag it to the 
village. In the procession, the man who has most distinguished himself in battle, 
mounted on the horse on whose back he has done his bravest deeds, takes the lead; 
others follow in the order of tlie military distinction; as tliey drag the log along, 
they fire guns at it, strike it with sticks, and shout and sing songs of victory. The 
log, they say, is syml)olical of a concpiered enemy, whose body they are bringing 
into the camp in triumph. [See ^Svn 28, 42, 160.J When the log is set up, they again 
go to the woods to procure a quantity of willows. A temporary lodge of green wil- 
lows is then built around the log, as the medicine lodge, wherein the ceremony is 
performed [see §168.] The participants fast four days with food in sight, and, on 
the fourth day, submit to tortures which vary according to the whim of the sufi'erer 
or the advice of the shamans. Some have long strips of skin separated from differ- 
ent parts of their bodies, but not completely detached. Others have large pieces ot 
the integument entirely removed, leaving the muscles exposed. Others have incis- 
ions made in their flesh, in which raw-hide strings are inserted; they then attach 
buffalo-skulls to the strings and run round with these until the strings becomes dis- 
engaged by tearing their way out of the flesh. Other have skewers inserted in their 
breasts, which skewers are secured by raw-hide cords to the central pole, as in the 
Dakota sun dance; the sufferer then throws liimself back until he is released by the 
skewers teariug out of the flesh. Many other ingenious tortures are devised.' 

§ 318. lu the narrative of Long's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 
we find an account of the latter part of this ceremony, prepared, as 
Matthews thinks, from the statements of Mr. Dougherty or Mr. Lisa, as 
the expedition did not go near the Minnetarec country. All the tor- 
ments there described, and more, are inflicted to this day. That 
account is as follows :^ 

Annually in the month of July the Minnetarees celebrate their great medicine 
dance. « * * Qu this occasion a considerable quantity of food is prepared. 
* * * The devotees then dance and sing to their music at intervals for three or 
four days together in fall view of the victuals without attem])ting to taste 
them. But they do not, even at this time, forego their accustomed hospitality. And 
if a stranger enters, he is invited to eat, though no one partakes with him. On the 
third or fourth day, the severer * ' * tortures commence. * * * An indi- 
vidual presents himself before one of the * * ^ m^gij crying and lamenting, 
and requests him to cut a fillet of skin fntm his arm, which he extends for that pur- 
pose. The operator thrusts a sharp iustniment through tlie skin near the wrists, 
then introduces the knife and cuts out a piece of the rec^uired length, sometimes ex- 
tending the cut entirely to the shoulder. Another will recjuest bands of skin to bo cut 
from his arm. A third will have his breast flayed so as to represent a full-moon or 
crescent. A fourth submits to the removal of concentric arcs of skin from his breast. 
A fifth prays the operator to remove small pieces of skin from various indicated 
parts of his body. * * * An individual requests the operator to pierce a hole 
through the skin on each of his shoulders, and after passing a long cord through each 
hole, he repairs to a burial ground at some distance from the vill.ago, aud selects one 

I r. S. Geol. ami (Jeogr. Surv., Havdcn, ^liscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: EtliDos. aud Pliilol. oi' Uidatsu 
Indians, pp. 4.5, 46. 

* James's account of Long's Expedition to llocky Monutaius, vol. i, pp. 276-278. 



504 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

of the bison skulls collected there. To the chosen skull he affixes the ends of his 
cords, and drags it to the lodge, around which he must go with his burden before 
he can be released from it. No one is permitted to assist him, neither dare he to put 
his Iiauds to the cords to alleviate his sufferings. If it should so happen that the 
liorus of the skull get hooked under a root or other obstacle, he must extricate it in 
the best manner he can by pulling different ways, biit he must not touch the cords 
or the skull with his hands, or in any respect attempt to relieve the strain upon his 
wound until his complete task is jter formed. 

Some of the penitents liave arrows thrust through various nniscular parts of their 
bodies, as through the skin and sui>erlieial muscles of the arms, leg, breast, and 
back. 

A devotee caused two arrows to be passed through the muscles of his breast, one 
on each side near the mammae. To these arrows cords were attached, the opposite 
ends of which were affixed to the upper part of a jiost which had been planted in 
the earth for the purpose. He then threw himself backward into an oblique 
position, his back within about 2 feet of the ground, so as to depend with the greater 
part of his weight by the cords. In this situation of agony he chanted and kept 
time to the music of the gong (sic), until he fainted from long abstinence and sutfer- 
ing. The bystanders then cried out, " Courage! courage!" After a short interval 
of insensibility, he revived and proceeded with his self-tortures as before, until 
nature being completely exhausted he again relapsed into insensibility, upon which 
he was loosed from the cords and carried oft" amidst the acclamations of the whole 
assembly. 

Another Minnetaree in compliance with a vow he had made, caused a hole to be 
perforated through the muscles of each shoulder. Through these holes cords were 
passed, the opposite ends of which were attached as a bridle to a horse which had 
been i)enned up three or four days without food or water. In this manner he led 
the horse to the margin of the river. The horse, of course, endeavored to drink, but 
it was the province of the Indian to prevent him, and that only by straining at the 
cords with the muscles of the shoulder, without resorting to the assistance of his 
hands. And, notwiftistanding all the exertions of the horse to drink, his master 
succeeded in preventing him, and returned with him to his lodge, having accom- 
plished his painful task. 

§ 319. In describing the Ilidatsa, Prince Maximilian says:^ 

They likewise celebrate the Okippe (which they call Akupehri), but with several 
deviations. Thus, instead of a so-called ark, a kind of high pole with a fork on it, 
is planted in the center of the open circle. When the partisans (i. e. war captains) 
intend to go on some enterprise in May or June, the preparations are combined with 
the Okippe (i. e., Okipa) of several young men, who wish to obtainthe rank of brave. 
A large medicine lodge is erected open above, with a division in the middle, in which 
the candidates take their places. Two pits are usually dug in the middle for the 
partisans, who lie in them four days and four nights, with only a piece of leather 
around the waist. The first partisan usually chooses the second, who undergoes the 
ceremony with him. There are always young people enough to submit their bodies 
to torture, in order to display their courage. They fast four days and nights, which 
leaves tbcm faint. Many of them begin the tortures on the third day; butthe fourth 
day is that properly set apart for them. To the forked pole of the medicine lodge is 
fastened a longpiece of buft'alo hide, with the head hanging down, and to this astrap 
is fastened. An old man is then chosen, who is to see to the torturing of the candi- 
dates, which is executed precisely in the same manner as among the Mandaus. The 
suflferers often faint. They are then taken by the hands, lifted up, and encouraged, 
and they begin afresh. When they have dragged about the buft'alo skull long enough, 
* * * a large circle is formed, as among the Mandans, in which they are made to 
run round till they drop down exhausted, when they are taken to the medicine lodge. 



'Travels * * ■ in Xortli Ameriia. p]). 4no, 4(il. 



DOR^EY] CULT OF THE YONI, 505 

The medicine mau receives from oue of the spectators the knife with which the ope- 
ration is to be performed. The partisan is bound to build the medicine lodge. 

During the ceremony the spectators eat and smoke: the candidates take nothin"- 
and, like the partisans, are covered all over with white clay. The latter, when they 
dance during the ceremony, remain near their pits, and then move on the same spot, 
holding in their hands their medicines, a buffalo tail, a feather, or the like. None 
but the candidates dance, and the only music is striking a dried buffalo hide with 
Avillow rods. There have been instances of fathers subjecting their children, only 6 
or 7 years of age, to these tortures. We ourselves saw one suspended by the nuisdea 
of the back, after having been compelled to fast four days. No application whatever 
is subsequently made for the cure of the wounds, which leave large swollen weals, 
and are much more conspicuous among the Hidatsa than among the ilandan. Most 
of the Hidatsa have three or four of these weals in parallel semicircular lines almost 
an inch thick, which cover the entire breast. There aresimilar transverse and long- 
itudinal lines on the arms. 

EefeiTing to Maximilian's description just given, Matthews observes : 

At this time, the Hidatsa call the Mandan ceremony akupi (of which word proba- 
bly akupehi is an old form) ; but they apply no such term to their own festival. Max- 
imilian did not spend a summer among those Indians, and, therefore, knew of both 
ceremonies only from description.' If the Minnetaree festival to which he referred 
was, as is most likely, the Nalipike, he is, to some extent, in error. The rites re- 
semble one another only in their appalling fasts and tortures. In allegory, they seem 
to be radically different. 

CULT OF THE YONI. 

§ 320. An account of the great buffalo medicine feast of the Hidatsa 
Constituted by the women'') has been recorded by Maxiinilian. Prayers 
are made for success in hunting and in battle. When the feast had 
continued two hours, the women began to act the part, which bore a 
slight resemblance to what Herodotus tells of the women in the temple 
of Mylitta.^ 

When the dance of the half shorn head was sold by its Mandan pos- 
sessors, they received in part payment the temporary use of the wives 
of the purchasers, each woman having the right to choose her consort.^ 

Lewis and Clarke have given accounts of two of the Mandan dances, 
the buffalo dance and the medicine dance, at the conclusion of which 
were rites that astonished the travelers, but chey were told that in the 
medicine dance only virgins or young unmarried females took part.^ 

AUS.vnOKA FEAR OF A WUITE BUFFALO (;OW. 

§ 321. The Absaroka or Crow I^ation have a superstitious fear of a 
white buffalo cow. When a Crow meets one, he addresses the sun in 
the following words : "I will give her (i. e., the cow) to you." He then 
endeavors to kill the animal, but leaves it untouched, and then says to 
the sun, "Take her, she is yours.'' They never use the skin of such a 
cow, as the Mandan do.^ 

1 Yet Maximilian saj's, " We ourselves saw one suspended, etc. "' 
^Travel-s " " ■ in North America, iij). 419-422. 
'Ibid, PP.420-42S. 
"Ibid, vol. I, PI). 180.190. 
« Ibid. p. 175. 



506 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

MANDAN CULTS. 

MAXDAX DIVINITIES. 

§ 322, According to one of Maxirailiau's informants, the Mandan be- 
lieve in several superior beings. (1) The first is Ohmaliauk-Xumakslii, 
the Lord of Life. He is tlie most powerful. He created the earth, man, 
and every existing- object. They believe that he has a tail, and appears 
sometimes in the form of an aged man and, at others, in that of a young 
man. (2) iSTumank-Machana, the First Man, holds the second rank; he 
was created by the Lord of Life, but is likewise of a divine nature. He 
resembles Nan abush or Manabozho of the O.jibwa and cognate tribes. 
(3) Ohmahank-Chika, the Lord of Evil, is a malignant spirit, who has 
much influence over men; but he is not as powerful as Ohmahank-Nu- 
niakshi and Xumauk-Machana. (4) Rohanka-Tauihanka, who dwells in 
the planet Venus, protects mankind on earth. The name of the fifth 
power has not been gained, but he is ever moving, walking over the 
earth in human form. They call him, "The Lying Prairie Wolf." (6) 
Ochkih-Hadda' is a spirit that it is difficult to class. They believe that 
one who dreams of him is sure to die very soon thereafter. This spirit 
is said to have come once into their villages and taught them many 
things, but since then he has not appeared. They fear him, offer him 
sacrifice, and in their villages they have a hideous image representing 
him. 

§ 323. The sun is thought to be the residence of the Lord of Life. In 
the moon dwells, as they say, the Old Woman who Xever Dies. They 
do not know much about her, but they sacrifice to her as well as to the 
other spirits. She has sis children, three sons and three daughters, 
who inhabit certain stars. The eldest son is the Day, the second is the 
Sun, the third is the Night. The eldest daughter is the star that rises 
in the east, the Morning Star, called, " The Woman Who Wears a 
Plume. " The second daughter, called " The Striped Gourd,'' is a star 
which revolves the polar star. The third daughter is the Evening Star, 
which is near the setting sun.'- 

§ 324. The Old Woman who Never Dies. — The cult of this spirit is 
observed in what Say calls "the corn dance of the Manitaries." Maxi- 
milian declares that Say is quite correct in his account of it, and that 
the Mandan practice it as well as the Hidatsa. 

It is the consecration of the grain to he sown, and is called the corn dance feast 
of the woman. The Old Woman who Never Dies sends, in the spring, the water- 
fowl, swans, geese, and ducks, as symhols of the kinds of grain cultivated t>y the 
Indians. The wild goose signifies corn ; the geese, the gourd, and the duck, beans. 
It is the old woman who causes these plants to grow, and, therefore, she sends these 
birds as her representatives. It is seldom that eleven wild geese are found together 
in the spring; but, if it happens, this is a sign that the crop of corn will be remarka- 
ably tine. The Indians keep a large quantity of dried meat in readiness for the 
time in the spring when the birds arrive, that they may immediately celebrate the 



'O-kee-hee-dee of Catlin. "Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, pp. 339, 360. 



DURSEY.] GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 507 

com feast of the women. They Lang the meat before the village on long scaftolds 
made of poles, three or four rows, one above another, and this, with other articles of 
value, is considered as an ottering to the Old Woman who Never Dies. The elderly 
women of the village, as representatives of that old woman, as.semble aboutthe scaf- 
folds on a certain day, each carrying a stick, to one end of which an ear of corn is 
fastened. Sitting in a circle, they plant their sticks in the ground before them, and 
then dance around the scaifolds. Some old men beat the drum and shake the gourd 
rattles. The corn is not wetted or sprinkled, as many believe, but on the contrary, 
it is supposed that such a practice would be injurious. While the old women are 
performing their part, the younger ones come and put some dry pulverized meat 
into their months, for which each young woman receives in return a grain of the con- 
secrated corn, which she eats. Three or four grains of the consecrated corn are put 
into their dish, and arc afterwards carefully mixed with the seed coru, in order to 
make it yield an abundant crop. The dried meat on the scaffolds is the perquisite 
of the aged females, as the representatives of the Old Woman who Never Dies. But 
members of the Dog Society have the privilege of taking some of this meat from the 
scaffolds without opposition from auyl)ody. 

A similar corn feast is held in the autumn, but at that season it is held for the pur- 
pose of attracting the herds of buffaloes and of obtaining a large supply of meat. 
Each woman then carries an entire cornstalk with the ears attached, pulling up the 
stalk by the roots. They designate the corn as well as the birds by the name of the 
Old Woman Who Never Dies, and call on them saying, "Mother, pity us; donotseud 
the severe cold too soon, lest we do not gain enough meat. Prevent the game from 
departing, so that we may have something for the winter!" 

lu autumn, when the birds migrate to the south, or, as the Indians say, return to 
the Old Woman, they believe that they take with them the dried meat hung on the 
scaffolds, and they imagine that the Old Woman partakes of it. 

The Old Woman who Never Dies has very large patches of corn, kept for her by 
the great stag and the white-tailed stag. She has, too, many blackbirds which help to 
guard her property. When she intends to feed these kee]»ers, she sunmionsthem, and 
they fall on the corn, which they devour with greediness. As these corn patches are 
large, the Old Woman requires many laborers, hence she has the mice, moles, and 
stao-s to perform such work for her. Tin; birds which tly from the seashore in the 
spring represent the Old Woman, who then travels to the north to visit the Old Man 
who Never Dies, who always resides there. She generally returns to the south in 
three or four days. In former times the Old Woman's hut was near the Little 
Missouri River, where the Indians often visited her. One day twelve Hidatsa went 
to her, and she set before them a kettle of corn, which was so small that it did not 
appear sufficient to satisfy the hunger of one of the party. But she told them to eat, 
and, as soon as the kettle was emptied it was filled again, and all the men had 
enough.' 

GUARDIAN SPIRITS. 

§ 325. The Maiidau undertake nothing without first invoking their 
guardian spirits, which appear to them in dreams (see § 236). When 
a man wishes to choose his guardian spirit, he fasts for three or four 
days, and sometimes longer, retires to a solitary place, does penance, 
and sometimes sacrifices joints of his fingers. He howls and cries to 
tl'.e Lord of Life, or to the First Man, beseeching him to point out the 
guardian spirit. He continues in this excited condition until he 
dreams, and the first animal or other object which appears in the dream 
is the guardian spirit. Each man has such a spirit. There is on the 

'Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, pp. 378-380. 



508 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

prairie a large hill, where they remain luotionless many days, lameuTiiiu 
and tasting. Xot far ti"oui tliis hill is a cave, into which they creep at 
night. The choice and adoration of gnardian spirits is said to have 
been taught the people many years ago by the Ochkih Hadda, It was 
he who taught them the art of tattooing, and who instituted medicine 
feasts.' 

MAXDAX BEUEF ABOUT SERPENTS AXD GI.O.'TS. 

§ 320. The Mandan believe that there is a huge serpent which inhab- 
its a lake three or four days* journey from their village, and to which 
they make offerings. The tradition relates how two Maudan youths 
encountered a giant, who carried them to a village of giants. The 
latter part, which tells how one of the youths was changed into a huge 
serpent after killing and eating a serpent, resembles a Winnebago tra- 
dition .' 

THrXPEK LORE OF THE MAXDAX. 

§ 327. The Maudan believe that thunder is produced by the wings of 
a gigantic bird. When the bird tlies softly, as is usually the case, he 
is not heard; but when he llaps his wings violently, he occasions a roar- 
ing noise. This bird is said to have two toes ou each foot, one behind 
and one before. It dwells on the mountains, and builds nests there as 
large as one of the forts. It preys upon deer and other large animals, 
the horns of which are heaped up around the nest. The glance of its 
eyes produces hghtning. It breaks through the clouds and makes way 
for the rain. The isolated and peculiarly loud claps of thunder are pro- 
duced by a large tortoise which dwells in the clouds. 

ASTROXOMICAL LORE. 

§ 328. The stars are deceased men. When a child is born a star de- 
scends and appears on earth in human form; after death it reascends 
and appears again as a star in the heavens. 

The rainbow is a spirit which accompanies the sun. Many athrm that 
the northern lights are occasioned by a large assembly of medicine men 
and distinguished warriors of several northern nations, who boil their 
prisoners and slain enemies in huge cauldrons.^ 

MYSTERY OB.JECTS .OCD PLACES OF THE MAXDAX AXD HIDATSA. 

§ 329. The mystery rock of the Maudan and Hidatsa is thus described 
by Lewis and Clarke: ^ 

This medicine stoue is the great oracle of the Mandans. and -whatever it aimonuces 
is believed with implicit coutideuce. Every spring and. on some occasions during 
the summer, a deputation visits the sacred spot, where there is a thick, porous stoue 
20 feet in circumference, with a smooth surface. Having reached the place, the cer- 
emony of smoking to it is performed by the deputies, who alternately take a whiff 



'Maximilian, Travels * * * in JJorth America, p. 369. 

2n>i(l.. pp. 380.381. 

ninA.. p. 361. 

^Lewis ami Clarke. Esped.. ed. .Allen. Vol. i. p. 205. 



MA.VDA5 



fECTS, ETC. 



5<>9 



▼ith him. 

. , rj^ fJf^TT 

♦"M his arr 

,; - r .^. ..r; V 4i*h«s a po-*- 

■i«a to a specified diatan^re. 



tb*tnj»*;ly*5s. ao4 tb«n pr^- '-" ' ' - . - - , . . - - ■ 

'yrib'ui^ vfftA for th* 
fcTnba.*».y 'I/^» not «lft«p. j-. 
whit*; m;*rkA or* r,hft ^Vrnft, -f^ 

The .taroe ?»t/iTie, a* wfftnaiytii by tne liHlat.'ia. is ihiw tktmmh^ by 
Jarnes:' 

*it, . 

Vil.:, 

tarftfc« r»?wrt. 

pr«v:T»ti», t»y : , 

Am individnal who intfriirtA t.o p*- 

• " * an/i al.v> itroVulfA s -■ 
an/1 r*?pairs t** th* rock a/;<y. 
deposite the pTfes^mta thftTft. 
face clfcan. and retires wirh .. 
prinr-ipal part of r. 
sincc*;s« in war a 
scaljrt from ^ 
tnrr;* t/^, th- 

wh. 

hf- can . 

»npp</vrd to relate to bii fiir 
thfc^m off » • * njion th 
retnrnii home to read from ' 
tjear be representfrfl with it- ur !■ 
party or the vi«itation of some *- 
the Tjear V»e toward the vilT . 
They say that an Indian f.. 

* " • chart the r^ij: 
They were all mneh » 
frjur months afterward tur; 
trading house was erected t.. 

3Iatthew.s refers thiLS to this "oracle"' of the Hidatsa and Mandan:^ 

The famooa holy stone or medicine r • • • 

wa^? some two or three daya' jonmey I. .ow seldom 

refer to it. and I do not think they ever visit it. 

5 330, According to Maximilian : * 

The Man'lans have many other m*'d!''iT»*- e«ta>>Ii.«hment* in the Ticiaity of tb^ir 
villages, all of which art- >t jvower*. * ' ' Of * 

near Mitntahankos, one coi. n 'hf- formof aaqnarf^-rr;. 

foremf^fst have a heap of ear* i thrown /.em. and : 

.sknlls laid in a line iMrtweer. -nty-aix L .s are pla. 

from one of the rear y»ole» to the r»ther, and on some of these sktilLs are painter! - 

r» I "rtripea. Behind the whole two knives are stuck into the grounrL and a \ 

of twigs is fastene<l at the top of the poles with a kind of eotnb. or rake, painted re<i . 
The Indians repair to such places when they desire to make offerings or petition* : 



-, or to that of 

h he bronght ... _ ..... ., ..,, , 

people the destiny of himself or them. 

' 'o ward the village, the approach of ^ 

hended. If, on the contrary, the ■ 

j.^ J at good is anti^^ripated, and they r-^ 

r:\ from the ro^rk exhibited * * * 



If a 



- French 



. a£tti a iiviCi-^'ur. 



' -Jajnes* Acconnr of Lons'a Expwl. to Eoeky Moontains, VoL L p. 2T3. 

»r. S. Gefil. ana f^oj^r. Sarv.. Ha^iten. MbccH. Pnh.. Xo. 7. MSTt . Ethnog. ^ri PUOoL of Hidatta 

Indian.-*, pp. 30. 51. 
-Travel-* * ' in Sarth Ameriea, pp. 3«1, 382. 



510 A STUDT OF aorAN CTXTS. 

liieT ir-w-L "cs-mmi- - ancl nuLke loud eBTreaiies, ofcen far many dars Togexhex, to the 
rnrtf niCTiV-"V mrtnlrti'hi ■ Anotiifir -•med-icrDe esEaWi^.lrmgDT ~ ec>n«i?T*d of a couple of 
i-EiDini isTiTes. -reiy thnnslh- made of skins, axed on j.oles. and representiag. as was 
TicQd -no Va-rrmi-HiCTi- tSmt SHE and moon- I'tit in Ms opinion, probaMy the O ma ha nt - 
5aniiakfihi and the Old "Waman that X e"resr Kes. 

t oSL If a Mandan possesses a - medicine pipe " - 1 e,. Trliat the Omaha 
and P<mfca eaU a niniba Trea-wa^ he sometimes decides to adopt a 
~ medicine son. " The yormg man whom he Is to eltoose appears to him 
ID a - T it is - - - - that he shonld be of a good fain fir, or 

have ; - r i some r i 



V 332. I^reaans adfard idie mortiT** for many of their acHons, eren for the penaiices 
TTiiieli they impose on themselTes. They think that all -w-Mth appears in their 
creams m^nsi Iwr tiroe. Before they became acqua±Dbfed -w-ith firearms, a Mandan 
dreamed «f a -weacpan Trith vMtfa they eonld "HTl ihsr enemies at a great distainee, 
aajd Boon aifeesr i4m; TrMtt luen Isronght them xhe fiist gxcn. In lite m.aniier they 
dreaaned ef liarses "before they olrtained any. In many cases the guardian spirit is 
TeTeaied uo the fasting y cmth in a dreaan. If the Lord of life makes him dream of a 
jnece of dhesrry "wood or of an g^rrrmal^ it is a good omen. The young naen ■wio follo-w 
such a dreaanex to the bactle iaTe greart: confidejice in Ms guardian spirit or " medi- 



t .533- Hie Mandan and Hidatsa consider the large gray owl a mys- 
tery bii-d, irrth whom they pretend to csoiiTerine and to understand its 
atti-tades and Tcaoe. Sneh owls are often kept alive in lodges, being 
rt^arded as mothmjer-L They have a similar ojjiiLion of eagles.^ 

§ 334. The sMn of a white huMak) eow is an eminent fetich in the 

e-' * - of the Mandan and Hidatsa. The hide must be that of a 
y , jyA oreil' years old. and ?>e taken off comjjlete. and tanned, 
witii homs, nosie, hoofs, and taJL It is worn on rare occasions. 

When the owner wishes to sacrifice sneh a skin to the Omahank- 
y-n rnakshi oito the ^Siimank-Maichana- he rolls it up. after adding some 
aitemi-da or an ear of com, and tlien the skin j-emains suspended on a 
jx/le until it decays.* 

Besides tLe white buffalo skins hung on tall ixjles as sacrifices, there 
weje other- strange objects hung on taU jxjles near the villages of the 
Mandan and Hidiitsa. These figures were comjxjsed of skin, grass, 
and twijrs- which memed iAj represent the sun, moon, and i>eihaps the 
O -j-aksLi and the Xumank-Machana. The Indians resoited 

t. - -, - .:. tLey wished to j^etition for anything, and sometimes 
howled ff/r- days and we>eks tog^hei.^ 

For- a r^fiaieaiee to trees and stones, see § 348. 



JTiavel*) ' ' ' Jju > w-a Ajnerica. J). ir70. *Ibid. jrji. 382. 886. « aid, pp. 383,403. 

«XlatL, pp. 371. 372. '•Ibid., p. 372. 



M^ HJT. H*#»«iigy : 



r- 



> 
iv 



« J^Jlk ^V« >*'i«^* -^ ^ >a ^Ms * 



512 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

they make a figure of wood or clay, substituting for the heart an awl, 
a needle, or a porcupine <piill, and bury the image at the foot of one of 
their "medicine poles."' 

.lUGiJLKUY. 

§ 337. The " medicine of one man consists in making a snow ball, 
which he rolls a long time between his hands, so that at length it 
becomes hard and is changed into a white stone, which, when struck, 
emits a fire. Many persons, even whites, pretended they had seen 
this, and they can not be convinced to the contrary. The same man 
pretends that, during a dance, he plucked white feathers from a certain 
small bird, w^hich he rolled between his hands, and formed of them in 
a short time a similar white stone. * * * a great many Mandan 
and Hidatsa believe that they have wild animals in their bodies; one, 
for instance, athrmed that he had a buffalo calf, the kicking of which 
he often felt; others said that they had tortoises, frogs, lizards, birds, 
etc. * * * Among the Hidatsa were seen medicine dances of the 
women, where one claimed to have an ear of corn in her body, which 
she ejected from her mouth during the dance, and then ate, after it had 
been mixed with Artemisia. * * * Another female dancer caused 
blood to gush from her mouth at will."'^ 

GHOST LORE. 

§ 338. The Mandan believe that each person has several spirits dwell- 
ing within him; one of which is black, another brown, and a third light- 
colored, the last alone returning to the Lord of Life. They think that 
after death they go to the south, to several villages which are visited 
by the gods ; that their existence there is dependent on their course of 
life while in this world; that the brave and kind-hearted carry on the 
same occupation, eat similar food, have wives, and enjoy the ideasures 
of war and the chase. Some of the Mandan are said not to believe all 
these parti(;ulars, but to suppose that after death their spirits will dwell 
in the sun or in certain stars. 

THK I'UTURE LIFE. 

§ 339. The Mandan belief in a future state is connected with the tra- 
dition of their origin : The whole nation resided in one large village under 
ground, near a subterraneous lake. Some of the people climbed up to 
this earth by means of a grape-vine, which broke when a corpulent 
woman essayed to climb it. Therefore the rest of the people remained 
in the subterranean village. When the Mandan die they expect to re- 
turn to the original seats of their forefathers, the good reaching the 
ancient village by means of the lake, which the burden of the sins of 
the wicked will not enable them to cross. ^ The concluding clause of the 



Maximilian, Travels ■ " ' in North America, p. 382. ' Ibid, pp. 382, 383, 423, 424. 

* Lewis and Clarke, Expedition, ed. Allen, Vol. 1, p. 175. 



i^OKSEY] HIDATSA DIVINITIES. 513 

last sentence can hardly be of Indian origin; it is very probably due to 
white influence. 

FOUU AS A MYSTIC NUMBER AMONG THE MANDAN. 

§ 340. According to Catlin:' 

Tbe Okipa iuvariably lasts four days; lour men arc selected by the first man to 
cleanse out and prepare tbe mystic lodge for tbe occasiofi; one of tbesemeu is called 
from the north part of the village, another from the east, a third from the south, and 
the fourth from the west (see §373). The four sacks of water, in the forms of large 
tortoises, resting on the floor of the lodge, seem to typify the four cardinal points. 
The four buffalo skulls and as many human skulls on the floor of the lodge, the four 
couples of dancers in the buffalo dance and the four intervening dancers in the same 
dance, deserve our study. The buffalo dance in front of the mystic lodge, repeated 
on the four days, is danced four times on the first day, eight times on the second, 
twelve times on the third, and sixteen times on the fourth. There are four sacrificea 
of black and blue cloths erected over the entrance of the mystic lodge. The visits 
of the Evil Spirit were paid to four of the buffalo in the buffalo dance. In every 
instance the young man who submitted to torture in the Okipa had four splints or 
skewers run through the flesh on his leg, four throiigh his arms, and four through 
his body. 

HIDATSA CULTS. 

HIDATSA DIVINITIES. 

§ 341. The Hidatsa believe in the Man who Never Dies, or Lord of 
Life, Ehsicka-Wahaddish,- literally, the tirst man, who dwells in the 
Kocky Mountains. He made all things. Another being whom they 
venerate is called the Grandmother. She roams over the earth. She 
had some share in creation, though an inferior one, for she created the 
toad and the sand-rat. She gave the Hidatsa two kettles, wliich they 
still preserve as a sacred treasure and employ as charms or fetiches on 
certain occasions. She directed the ancestors of the present Indians to 
preserve the kettles and to remember the great waters, whence came 
all the animals dancing. The red-shouldered oriole {Psaracolim phoe- 
nicens) came at that time out of the water, as well as the other birds 
which still sing along the banks of rivers. The Hidatsa, therefore, look 
on all these birds as "■ medicine" for their corn patches, and attend to 
their songs. When these birds sing the Hidatsa, remembering the 
direction of the Grandmother, fill the two kettles with water, dance and 
bathe, in order to commemorate the great flood. When their fields are 
threatened with a great drought they celebrate a "medicine" feast with 
the two kettles, as they beg for rain. The shamans are still ]>aid, on 
such occasions, to sing for four days together in the huts, while the 
kettles remain full of w^ater. 

§ 342. The sun, or as they term it, "the sun of the day," is a great 
power. They do not know what it really is, but when they are about 
to undertake some enterprise they sacrifice to it and also to the moon, 



' Catlin, in Sniitlisoiiian Kept., 1885, pt. 2, p. 372. 

'So called by ^laxiiualiaii, .samo as the Itaika-inaliiilis of Matthews. 

11 ETH .'>3 



514 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

which they call " the sun of the night. " The morning star, Venus, they 
regard as the child of the moon, and they account it as a great power. 
They affirm that it was originally a Hidatsa, being the grandson of the 
Old Woman who Never Dies.' 

§ 343. Matthews 2 found that the object of the greatest reverence 
among tLe Hidatsa was, perhaps, the Itsika-mahidis, the First Made, 
or First in Existence. They assert that he made all things, the stars, 
sun, the earth, the first representatives of each species of animals and 
plants, but that no one made him. He also, they say, instructed the 
forefathers of the tribes in all the ceremonies and mysteries now known 
to them. They sometimes designate him as Itaka-te-tas, or Old Man 
Immortal. 



§ 344. If we use tlie term worship iu its most extended sense it may be said that 
* * * (the Hidatsa) worship everything iu nature. Not man alone, but the sun, 
the moon, the stars, all the lower animals, all trees and plants, rivers and lakes, many 
bowlders and other separated rocks, even some hills and buttes which stand alone — 
in short, everything not made by human hands, which has an independent being, or 
can be individualized, possesses a spirit, or, more properly, a shade. 

To these shades some respect or consideration is due, but not equally to all. For 
instance, the shade of the Cottonwood, the greatest tree of the Upper Missouri Val- 
ley, is supposed to possess an intelligence which may, if jiroperly approached, assist 
them in certain undertakings; but the shades of shrubs and grasses are of little im- 
portance. When the ^lissouri, in its spring-time freshets, cuts down its bank and 
sweeps some tall tree into its current, it is said that the spirit of the tree cries while 
the roots yet cling to the land and until the tree falls into the Avater. Formerly it 
was considered wrong to cut down one of these great trees, and, when large logs were 
needed, only such as were found fallen were used ; and to-day some of the more 
credulous old men declare that many of the misfortunes of the people are the result 
of their modern disregard for the rights of the living cottonwood. The sun is held 
iu great veneration, and many valuable sacrifices are made to it.^ 

AVORSIIIP OF THE ELEMENTS, ETC. 

§ 345. This is in substantial accord with what Maximilian was told, 
as will be seen from the following : 

In the sweat bath the shaman, after cutting off a joint of the de- 
votee's fingers, takes a willow twig, goes to the dishes containing food, 
dips the twig in each and throws a part of the contents in the direction 
of the four winds, as offerings to the Lord of Life, the fire, and the 
divers superhuman powers.* 

SERPENT WORSHIP. 

§ 346. The Hidatsa make occasional ofl^erings to the great serpent 
that dwells in the Missouri River by placing poles in the river and 

' Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, j). 338. 

'^V. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., Hayilen, Miscell. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethuog. and Philol. of Hidatsa 
Indians, p. 47. 
3Ibid.,pp.48, 49. 
* Maximilian, Travels * * * in Nortb America, p. 402. 



DORSEY] DAIMONISM — FETICHES. 515 

attaching to them sundry robes or colored blankets. The tradition of 
this great serpent resembles the Mandan tradition, but with some dif- 
ferences.' 

§ 347. Bamonism.— The Hidatsa believe neither a hell nor in a devil, 
but believe that there are one or more evil genii, in female shape, who 
inhabit this earth, and may harm the Indian in this life, but possess no 
power beyond the grave. Such a power or powers they call ]\rahopa- 
miis. The Mahopa-miis dwells in the woods and delights in doing 
evil. She is supposed to strangle such children as, through i)arental 
ignorance or carelessness, are smothered in bed.^ 

FETICHES. 

§ 348. Among the fetiches of the Hidatsa are the skins of every kind 
of fox and wolf, especially the latter; and, therefore, when they go to 
war, they always wear the stripe off the back of a wolf skin, with the 
tail hanging down the shoulders. They make a slit in the skin through 
which the warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf's head 
hangs down upon his breast. 

Tribal fetiches. — Buffalo heads also are fetiches. In one of their vil- 
lages they preserved the neck bones of the buffalo, as do the Crow or 
Absaroka, and this is done with a view to prevent the buffalo herds 
from removing to too great a distance from them. At times they per- 
form the following ceremony with these bones : They take a potsherd 
with live coals, throw sweet-smelling grass upon it, and fumigate the 
bones with the smoke. 

There are certain trees and stones which are fetiches, as among the 
Mandan. At such places they offer red cloth, red paint, and other arti- 
cles to the superhuman powers.^ (See § 334.) 

In the iiriucipal Hidatsa village, when Maximilian visited it, was a 
long pole set up, on which was a ligure of a woman, doubtless repre- 
senting the Grandmother, who first gave them kettles. A bundle of 
brushwood was hung on the pole, to which were attached the leathern 
dress and leggins of a woman. The head of the figure was made of 
Artemisia, and on it was a cap of feathers.* 

§ 349. Personal fetiches. — Matthews uses the term amulet instead of 
personal fetich, in speaking of the Hidatsa: 

Every man iu this tribe, as iu all ueighboring tribes, has his personal medicine, 
which is usually some animal. Un all war parties, and often on hunts and other ex- 
cursions, he carries the head, claws, stuU'ed skin, or other representative of liis med- 
icine with him, and seems to regard it in much the same light that Europeans in 
former days regarded — and in some cases still regard — protective charms. To insure 
the fleetness of some promising young colt, they tie to the colt's neck a suuill piece of 



'Maximilian, Travels « * * in North America, i). 402. 

•■'U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.. Hayden, Misccll. Publ. No. 7, 1877: Ethnol. and Philol. of Ilidat.sa 
Indiana, pp. 49, 184. 
■'^^axiIlliIian. Travels ' * * in North America, pp. 399-400. 
* Ibid, p. 390. 



516 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

deer or antelope horn. The rodent teeth of the heaver are regarded as potent charms, 
and are -worn hy little girls on their necks to make them industrious.' 

The ••Medicine Eoek'* of the Mandau and Hidatsa has been described 
in § 329. 

§ 350. Oracles. — Matthews speaks of another oracle, to which the Hi- 
datsa now often refer, the Makadistati, or house of infants, a cavern 
near Knife Eiver, which they supposed extended far into the earth, but 
whose entrance was only a span wide. It was resorted to by the child- 
less husband or the barren wife. There are those among them who im- 
agine that in some way or other their children come from the Makadis- 
tati; and marks of coutu.sion on an infant, arising from tight swaddling 
or other causes, are gravely attributed to kicks received from his former 
comrades when he was ejected from his subterranean home.^ 

§ 351. James says : 

At the distance of the journey of one day anda half from Knife Creek ^ ^ - j^j.^ 
two conical hills, separated by about the distance of a mile. One of these hills was 
supposed to impart a prolific virtue to such squaws as resorted to it for the j)urpose 
of lamenting their barrenness. A person one day walking near the other hill, fancied 
he observed on the top of it two very small children. Thinking that they had strayed 
from the village, he ran towards them to induce them to return home, but they im- 
mediately fled from him. * * * and in a short time they eluded his sight. Re- 
turning to the village, the relation of his story excited much interest, and an Indian 
set out the next day, mounted on a fleet horse, to take the little strangers. On the 
approach of this person to the hill he also saw the cliildren, who ran away as before, 
and though he tried to overtake them by lashing the horse to his utmost swiftness, 
the children left him far behind. These children are no longer to be seen, and the 
hill once of such singular eflicacy in rendering the human species prolific has lost this 
remarkable property.^, 

Matthews* says that this account seems to refer to the Makadistati, 
but, if such is the case, he believes that the account is incorrect in some 
respects. 



§ 352. The Hidatsa have much faith in dreams, but usually regard as 
oracular only those which come after prayer, sacrifice, and fasting.^ 

BERDACilES. 

§ 353. The French Canadians call those men berdaches who dress in 
women's clothing and perform the duties usually allotted to women in 
an Indian camp. By most whites these berdaches are incorrectly sup 
posed to be hermaphrodites. They are caUed miati by the Hidatsa, 
from mia, a woman, and the ending, ti, to feel an involuntary inclina- 



1 Maximilian, Travels" * * * in Xorth America, p. 50. 
^Ibid. p. 51. 

^James's Account of Lome's Esped. to Rocky Mountains, vol. i, pp. 274. 27.">. 

^r.S. Geol. ami Geosr. Surv.. Uayden, Miscell. Publ.. No. 7, 1877: Ethuoi: and Philol. of Hidatsa 
Indiiin.s, p. 51. 
5 Ibid, p. 5U. 



^^'^-^^■'i ASTROXOMICAL AND FOOD LOhE. 51 



01 i 



tion, j. e., to be impelled af,'aiij.st bis will to act the woman. See the 
Omaha mi"quga. the KaLsa mi'-ousre. and the Dakota wiijkta aud 
wiijkte (§§ 30, 212.) 



ASTROXOMICAL LORE. 



§ 354. Ursa major is said to be &a ermine, the several stars of that 
constellation indicating, in their opinion, the bnrrow. the head, the 
feet, and the tail of that animal. They call th^ milkv wav the --ashy 
way.*' 

They think that thunder is caused by the flapping ..i tue wmgs of 
the large bird, which causes rain, and that the lightning is the glance 
of his eye when he seeks prey. 

They call the rainbow, '- the cap of the water,"' or - the cap of the 
rain." Once, say they, an Indian caught in the autumn a red bird 
that had mocked him, releasing it after binding its feet together with a 
fish line. The bird saw a hare and i>ounced upon it, but the hare crept 
into the skull of a buffalo lying on the prairie, and as the line hanging 
from the bird's claws formed a semicircle, they imagine that the rain- 
bow is still caused by that occurrence.' 



FOOI> LOKE. 



§ 355. They have queer notions respecting the effects of different 
articles of diet: thus: an expectant mother believes that if she eats a 
part of a mole or shrew, her child will have small eyes; that if she 
eats a piece of porcupine, her child will be inclined to sleep too much 
when it grows up : that if she partakes of the flesh of the turtle, her 
offspring will be slow or lazy, etc. : but they do not suppose that such 
articles of food affect the immediate consumer. 

FOUR SOULS IN EACH HUMAN BEING. 

§ 35G. " It is believed by some of the Hidatsa that every human being 
has four souls in one. They account for the phenomena of gradual 
death where the extremities are apparently dead while consciousness 
remains, by sujiposing the four souls to depart, one after another, at 
different times. AYhen dissolution is complete, they say that all the 
souls are gone, and have joined together again outside of the body. I 
have heard a Minnetaree quietly discussing this doctrine with an Assin- 
neboine. who beUeved in only one soul to each body."^ 

.-ORCERY. 

§ 357. ''They have faith in witchcraft, and think that a sorcerer may 
injure a person, no matter how far distant, by acts upon an efligy or 
upon a lock of the victim's hair." ^ 

'Maximilian. Travels ' ' ' in Xorth America, p. 399. 

T. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.. Hayden, Miscell. Publ., Xo. 7. 1877: EUinog. and Philol of Hidataa 
Indians, p. 50. 
»Ibid. p. 50. 



518 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. 

§ 358. The Hidatsa always lay their dead upon scaffolds. As the 
Lord of Life is displeased when they quarrel and kill one another, those 
who do so are buried in the earth, that tbey may be no longer seen. In 
this case a buflalo head is laid on the grave, that the herds of buffjilo 
may not keep away, for, if they were to smell the wicked, they might 
remoA'e and never return. The good are laid upon scaffolds, that they 
may be seen by the Lord of Life.^ 

The Crows have no fear of death, but they have a horror of being 
buried in the ground.- 

HIDATSA BELIEF AS TO FUTUKE EXISTENCE. 

§ 359. They think that after death they will be restored to the man 
sions of their ancestors under ground, from which they are intercepted 
by a large and rapid watercourse. Over this river, which may be com- 
pared to the Styx of the ancients, they are obliged to pass on a very 
narrow footway. Those Indians who have been useful to the nation, 
such as brave warriors or good hunters, pass over with ease and arrive 
safely at A-pah-he, or ancient village. But the worthless Indians slip 
off' from the bridge or footway into the stream which * * * hurries 
them into oblivion.^ 

Their faith concerning a future hfe is this : When a Hidatsa dies his shade lingers 
four nights around the camp or village in which he died, and then goes to the lodge 
of his departed kindred in the Village of the Dead. When he has arrived there, he 
is rewarded for his valor, self-denial, and ambition on earth by receiving the same 
regard in the one place as in the other; for there, as here, the brave man is honored 
and the coward despised. Some say that the ghosts of those who commit suicide 
occupy a separate part of the village, but that their condition differs in no wise from 
that of the others. In the next world, human shades hunt and live on the shades of 
the buffalo and other animals that have here died. There too there are four seasons, 
but they come in an inverse order to the terrestrial seasons. During the four nights 
that the ghost is supposed to linger near his former dwelling, those who disliked or 
feared the deceased, and do not wish a visit from the shade, scorch with red coals a 
pair of moccasins, which they leave at the door of the lodge. The smell of the burn- 
ing leather, they claim, keeps the ghost out ; but the true friends of the dead man 
take no such precautions. * * * They believe in the existence and advisability 
of human and other ghosts, yet they seem to have no terror of graveyards and but 
little of mortuary remains. You may frighten children after nightfall by shouting 
uohidahi (ghost), but will not scare the aged.-* 

SAPONA CULTS. 

§ 359J. The following account of the religion of the Sapona, a tribe 
related to the Tutelo, was given in^l729 by Col. William Byrd, of West- 
over, Va.^ While much of it appears to be the white man's amj)lifica- 

'Maximilian, Travels * * * in North America, pp. 404, 405. 
'■^Ibid. p. 176. 

^Lewis aud Clarke's Exped., edited by Allen, vol. I, p. 280. 

<U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv., Hayden, Miscall. Publ., No. 7, 1877: Ethnog. and Philol. of Hidat.sa 
Indians, p. 49. 
6 Byrd, history of the dividing line (1729), vol. I, 106-108. Keprint: 18G6. 



DORSEY] SAPONA CULTS. 519 

tiou of the ludiau's narrative, it is plain that the account contains 
a lew aboriginal beliefs. For this reason, and because it is the only 
known account of tiie Sapona religion, it is now given in full: 

"In the eveuing we examined our friend Bearskin concerning the religion of his 
country, and he explained it to us, without any of that reserve to which his nation 
is suhject. He told us he believed there was one supreme God, who had several 
subaltern deities under him. And that this Master-God made the world a long time 
ago. That He told the sun. the moon and stars their business in the beginning, 
•which they, with good looking after, have faithfully performed ever since. That the 
same Power that made all things at tirst has taken care to keep them in the same 
method and motion ever since. He believed God had form'd many worlds before He 
form'd this, but that those worlds either grew old or ruinous, or were destroy'd for 
the dishonesty of the inhal)itants. That God is very just and very good— ever well 
pleas'd with those men Avho possess those God-like qualities. That He takes good 
people under His safe protection, makes them very rich, iills their bellies plentifully, 
preserves them from sickness and from being surpriz'd or overcome by their enemies. 
But all such as tell lies and cheat * * * He never fails to punish with sickness, 
poverty and hunger, and after all that, suffers them to be knockt on the head and 
scalpt by those that light against them. He believed that after death both good and 
bad people are conducted by a strong guard into a great road, in which departed 
souls travel together for some time till, at a certain distance this road forks into 
two paths', the one extremely levil, the other stony and mountainous. Here the 
good are parted from the bad by a flash of lightning, the first being hurry'd away 
to the right, the other to the left. The right hartd road leads to a charming warm 
country, where the spring is everlasting, and every month is May; and as the year 
is always in its youth, so are the people, and particularly the women are bright as 
the stars, and never scold. That in this happy climate there are deer, turkeys, elk, 
and buffaloes innumerable, perpetually fat and gentle, while the trees are loaded 
with delicious fruit quite throughout the four seasons. That the soil brings forth 
corn spontaneously, without the curse of labour, and so very wholesome, that none 
who have the happiness to eat of it are ever sick, grow old or dy. Near the entrance 
into this blessed land sits a venerable old man on a mat richly woven, who examins 
strictly all that are brought before him, and if they have behav'd Avell, the guards 
are order'd to open the crystal gate and let them enter the land of delights. The 
left hand path is very rugged and uneven, leading to a dark and barren country, 
where it is always winter. The ground is the Avhole year round cover'd with snow, 
and nothing is seen upon the trees but icicles. All the people are hungry, yet have 
not a morsel to eat except a bitter kind of potato, that gives them the dry-gripes, 
and fills their whole body with loathsome ulcers, that stink and are insupportably 
painful. Here all the Avomen are old and ugly, having claws like a panther, with 
which they fly upon the men that slight their passion. For it seems tliese haggard 
old furies are intolerably fond, and expect a vast amount of cherishing. They talk 
much, and exceedingly shrill, giving exquisitepain to the drum of the ear, which in 
that place of torment is so tender, that every sharp note wounds it to the quick. At 
the end of this path sits a dreadful old Avoman on a monstrous toadstool, whose head 
is cover'd with rattlesnakes instead of tresses, Avith glaring Avhite eyes, that strike a 
terror unspeakable into all that behold her. This hag pronounces sentence of woe 
upon all the miserable Avretches that hold up their hands at her tribunal. After this 
they are deliver'd ovev to huge turkey-buzzards like harpys, that fly away Avith them 
to the place above mentioned. Here, after they have been tormented a certain num- 
ber of years, according to their several degrees of guilt, they are again driven back 
into this world, to try if they Avill mend their manners, and merit a i)lace next time 
in the regions of bliss. " 

' See the Omaha belief, in J 68. 



CHAPTER YII. 

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
PEET ON INDIAN RELIGIONS. 

§ 360. lu the Journal of the Victoria Institute of Great Britain for 
1888/ is an article containing the following- statements, which were not 
seen by the writer until lie had completed the preceding chapters of this 
pajoer. 

Referring to Mr. Eells, the Nez Perce missionary, and to Mr. Wil- 
liams, who lias been laboring among the Chiiipewas, ]Mr. Peet observes:^ 

There are four or five poiats on ■which botli missionaries seem to be agreed *^ *f * 
These four doctrines — the existence of God, immortality of the soul, the sinfulness of 
man, and the necessity of sacrifice — seem to have been held in various modified forms 
by all the tribes in North America. 

On the next page^ he gives a classification of native religions, by 
which lie means those of America. He says that these religions may 
be (li%ided by geographical districts into several classes: 

(1) Shamanism, by which he seems to mean the worship) of the wakan 
men and women. '' Among the Eskimos, Aleuts, aud other hyperborean 
nations, who subsist chiefly by fishing." (2) Animism, by which he 
jnobably means the worship of "souls'' or "shades,"' including ghosts, 
as every object, whether animate or inanimate, is thought to have a 
" shade." This belief, he says, is found in its highest stage among tribes 
that formerly dwelt in British Xortli America, between Hudsons Bay 
and the Great Lakes. These tribes subsist by hunting. (3) Animal 
worship, practiced by a class partly hunters, partly farmers, dwelling, 
say, between 35° and 48° N. lat. (4) Sun Avorship, the cult of the 
tribes south of 35° ^. lat., and extending to the Gulf of Mexico. 
(5) Elemental worship, which he defines as "the worship of rain, light- 
ning, the god of war and death," found in Mexico and New Mexico. 
(G) Anthropomorphism, a religion which gave human attributes to 
the divinities, but assigned to them supernatural i)owers. This pre- 
vailed in Central America. 



iRev. S. D. Peet, on the tradition of aborigines of Xorth America, in Jour. Vict. Inst., Vol. XXI, pp. 
229-247. 
2 1 bid., p.2:j2. 
'ibiil., p.233. 
520 



DORSET.] THE author's KEPLY. 521 

THE AITTIIOE's REPLY. 

§ 361. But what do we tiud preval(Mit aiuoiii? the tribes under coii.sid- 
eratiou in this paper ? 

I. Idea of God. — The Siouan tribes cousidered in this paper were not 
monotheists (§§ 20, W, 95, 311). The statement recorded in § 21 about 
a crude belief in a Supreme Being, which the Omaha called Wakanda, 
was accepted by the autlior as thebeliefof his informants; but we must 
remember that the Omaha tribe has been in a transition state for many 
years, certainly since 1855, and possibly since the days of Maj. Long's 
visits to them. (2) That these Indians believed in a Great Spirit who 
was supreme over all other superhuman x)owers needs more evidence. 
The only assertion of such a belief which the author has gained was ob- 
tained from an Omaha (see § 22), but this assertion was denied by two 
other members of that tribe. (3) In those cases alleged as proving a 
belief in one Great Spirit, a closer study of the language employed 
reveals the fact that a generic term has been used instead of a specific 
one, and, in almost every instance, the writer who tells of one Great 
Spirit supplements his account by relating what he has learned about 
beliefs in many gods or spirits. (4) These tribes had cults of many 
j)Owers; everything animate and inanimate was regarded as having a 
" shade." 

II. Belief in immortality.— The author finds no traees of a behef inthe 
immortality of human beings. Even the gods of the Dakota were 
regarded as being mortal, for they could be killed by one another (§ 9-4). 
They were male and female ; they married and died, and were succeeded 
by their children. But if for" immortality" we substitute " continuous 
existence as shades or ghosts" there will be no difficulty in showing that 
the Siouau tribes referred to held such abelief respecting mankind, and 
that they very probably entertained it in a crude form prioi- to the 
advent of the white race to this continent (§§ 07-71, 91, 338). 

III. Idea of sin.— The scriptural idea of sin seems to be wanting 
among these tribes. There have been recorded by the author and others 
many acts which were deemed violations of religious law, but few of 
them can be compared with what the Bible declares to be sins. It was 
dangerous to make a false report to the keeper of the sacred tent of war 
or to the directors of the buffalo hunt, in the estimation of the Omaha, 
for the offender was sure to be struck by lightning or bitten by a snake 
or killed by a foe or thrown by a horse or have some other disaster 
befall him.^ It was dangerous to break the taboo of any gens or subgens, 
or to violate any other ancient custom.^ (See §§ 45, 08, 222, and 286 of 
this i^aper.) 

IV. Idea of sacrifice. — The idea of sacrifice as atoning for sin has 
not yet been found by the author among these Siouan tribes. In no 

•Om. Soc, 3d Ann. Kept. Bur. Ethnol., >^ 130, 137. 
"Ibid., §^ 19, 21, 31, 97, etc. 



522 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

instance of sacrifice recorded in this paper has the author detected any 
notion of expiation for sin against a just and lioly Being. But sacrifice, 
whether in the form of fasting, self-torture, or the offering of property', 
was made in order to win the fiivor of a god, to obtain a temi^oral 
advantage (§§ 2S, 29, 101, 111, etc.), or to avert the anger of demons, as 
when the peojile were suifering from famine or an epidemic (§ 141). 

Y. ShamanisiH. — While there have been shamans and various orders 
of shamans among these tribes, no trace of a worship of shamans as 
gods has yet been found. Ou one occasion the author met a Ponka 
shaman, Cramped Hand, who exclaimed, '' I am a wakanda. " But no 
other Ponka ever said that he or she worshiped Cramped Hand as a 
wakanda. 

VI. The other beliefs named by Br. Peet have been found, in some 
tribes, side bj^ side. Animism, or a form of animism, was held by those 
who worshiped the sun, animals, etc. "Everything had a soul" (§§97, 
130,1.37,205-288,311, etc.). Certain animals were ; worshiped (§§ 21, 
43, 78, 92, 320, etc.). The sun was invoked, not only in the sun dance 
(§§ 139-212), but on other occasions (§§ 28, 43, 73, 312, 323). Stars, too, 
were regarded as gods (§§ 3L, 43). Elemental worship had a wider sig- 
nificance among these tribes than Dr. Peet assigns it (§§ 27, 33-33, 43, 44, 
74-77, 303, etc.). And there are traces of anthropomori^hism, for some 
of the gods are in human form (§§ 217, 235); others are supposed to 
inhale the odor of tobacco smoke, which is jdeasant to them; they eat, 
breathe, use weapons against one another as well as against human 
beings, and on one occasion an Indian was called on to aid one or the 
other of two contending gods; they hear, think, marry, die, and are 
succeeded by their children (§§ 25, 29, 35, 30, 72, 75, 94, 109, 112, 117, 
119, 130, 217, 322,etc.).i 

§ 302. The cults affected the social organization of the tribes that had 
gentes bearing mystic names (see §§ 57 and 82 of this paper, and Om. 
Soc, in 3d An. Eept. Bur. Eth., Chap, iii, and pp. 350, 359-301); orders 
of shamans and other secret societies were intimately associated with 
them (§§ 43-45, 80, 87, and 89; and Om. Soc, pp. 342-355); personal 
names still refer to them (§§ 31, 47, 53, 59, 74, 75, and 77; and Om. Soc, 
pp. 228, 232, 230, 238-244, 240-218, 250, and 251); and almost every act 
of the daily life of the people was influenced by them (§§ 23, 24, 27, 28-30, 
32,-3.3-30, 39-41, 54, 101, etc.; and Om. Soc, Chap, vi, and pp. 207, 274, 
280, 287, 289-291, 293-299, 310, 319-325, 327, 328, 357, 308-370). 

CULTS OF THE ELEMENTS. 

§ 303. Prior to writing this paper, the author had observed what Dr. 
Foster stated in his Indian Eecord and Historical Data respecting the 
division of the Winnebago tribe into four groups, named after the 
earth, air, fire, and water, respectively, i. e., Foster claimed that the 
Winnebago had people named after land animals, others after birds and 

iSee Am. Xatuialist, July. 1885, pp. 673, 674, Figs. :i and 4. 



DORSET.! 



CULTS OF THE ELEMENTS. 



523 




\NAR 



the winds, others after the thiiiider-beiuiis, and (Others after the 
"Waktceqi or water monsters.' (See § 06.) 

During the year 1890 the author obtained from the three principal 
Ponka chiefs the classification of their 
gentes by phratries, and the character 
of the mystic songs peculiar to each 
phratry. 

On comparing this information witli 
that which has been related about the 
Dakota gods, there seemed to be good 
reasons for inferring that not only the 
Dakota tribes, but also the Omaha, 
Ponka, Winne-bago, and others of the 
same stock, divided their gods into fou 
classes, those of the earth, wind-mak- 

SrS, fire, and water. i"i«- 193.— TUo Catada goutile clrole. 

§ 364. Among the Omaha, Iowa, and cognate tribes, we find that wlien 
a gens assembled as a whole, for council purposes, they sat around the 
fire in the order shown in the accompanying diagram, Fig. 193: 

Legend.— 1, Black Bear subgens; 2, Small Bird subgens; 3. Eagle siibtrens; 4, 
Turtle subgens; 5. fireplace; 6. eutrance. 

Places in the_ circle were assigned according to kinship; thus, the 

Black Bear and Small Bird i)eople are 
spoken of as "sitting on the same side 
of the fireplace,'' as they are full kin, 
while they are only partially related to 
those who sit on the other side (Xos. 3 
and 1). That the fireplace was sacred, 
there being traces of a hearth cult, has 
been shown in §§ 33 and 40. Further- 
more, the (/'atada circle is remarkable 
not only for its arrangement according 
to kinship, but for its symbolic char- 
acter; because the Black Bear people 
are associated with the ground or earth, 
as is shown by their personal names; 
the Small Bird people are Thunder-beings or Fire people; the Eagle 
subgens consist of "Wind-maker" people; and the Turtle subgens is 
composed of Water people. 

§ 365. This suggests another diagram. Fig. 194, in which the author 
has put the names of four classes of Dakota gods, with what he sus- 
pects to be their appropriate colors, R standing for red, B for black, Y 
for yellow, and Bl for blue. 

'The reader in cautioned against siipposiTig tliat "air" as used in this section is employed lu the 
scientitic sense, because the Indians were ignorant of the nature of the atmosphere. Tliey distin- 
guish between the '• Somethiiig-thatmoves" (which we term the '-Wind-maker," "Wind-makers" 
in the plurab and the winds, and they also had distinct names for the clouds and '' uiii)er world." 
They also bad special names for the Four Quarter.s (Dakota, tatuye topa ; (pegiha, tade iiiifd dubaha). 




PEACE 

Fig. 194.— The four elements, etc. 



524 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

Earth people serve or assist Fire people (§ 35 aud perhaps § 36). Do 
Water people ever serve Wind-maker people (see address to a stream 
iu time of war, § 23) ? The Fire powers are hostile to the powers of the 
Warter (§§ 75, 77, 117-110); we have yet t'> learn whether, in any gens, 
a subg'ens named after the Thnnder-being sits on the same side of the 
gentile fireplace with a snbgens named after a power of the W^ater. Is 
there a warfare going on between the x>owers of the Earth and the 
W^ind-makers? The Fire powers and Wind-makers are concerned in 
all kinds of sufl'ering, including war, disease, and death (§§ 117, 119, 
127, 129), and there is no hostility existing between them.^ 

The Ka"se gens of the Osage has several names. Wind people. South- 
wind people. Those who light the pipes (in council), aud Fire x^eople. 

The powers of the Earth and Water are interested in the preservation 
of life, and so we may consider them the patrons of peace. "Peace," 
iu Omaha, Ponka, and j^oiwere, means "The land is good," and "to 
make peace" is expressed by " to make the land good." The words for 
"water "and "life" are identical in some of the Siouan languages, and 
thej' differ but slightly in others. 

It is interesting to note what has been said by Mr. Francis La 
Flesche^ about water: "Water seems to hold an important place in 
the practice of this medicine society, even when roots are used for the 
healing of wounds. The songs say : ' Water was sent into the wound, 
' Water will be sent into his wound,' etc." The mystic songs of the 
doctors of the order of buffalo shamans tell of the pool of water in a 
buffalo wallow where the wounded one shall be treated. 

But we must note some apparent inconsistencies. While the UnkteHi 
created the earth and the human race (§ 112), they are believed to feed 
on human spirits or ghosts; though ghosts are reckoned among the serv- 
ants of the Unktehi ! And while the powers of the Fire and Water are 
enemies, one is surprised to observe that in the war gens of the Omaha 
as well as in the two war gentes of the Kansa, there is the sacred clam 
shell as well as the war pipe ! (See § 36 aud Om, Soc, p. 226.) 

THE FOUR QUARTERS. 

§ 366. According to the tradition of the liike-sabe, an Omaha buffalo 
people, the ancestral buffaloes found the East and South winds bad 
ones 5 but the North and West winds were good. From this the author 
infers that the Omaha associated the East with the Fire powers or the 
sun, the South^ with the Air powers, the North with the Earth powers, 
and the West with the Water powers. 

On the other hand, an Iowa man told Mr. Hamilton that the South 

•See § 33 where tliere is an account of the invocation of the winds at the consecration of the fire- 
places. 

2 The Omaha Buffalo Medicine Men, in Jour. Amer. Folk lore, No. x, p. 219, and note. 

^It is interesting to observe in this connection that the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, in an 
address entitled " Outlines of the philosophy of the North American Indians." New York, 1877, 
(p. 10), spoke of " the god of the south, whose breath i.s the winds." 



DORSET.] 



THE FOUR QUARTERS. 



525 



Wind was a bsneficeut cue, while the Northeast wind was maleficent 
(§ i-i). This variation may have been caused by a difference in the hab- 
itats of the tribes referred to. 

§ 3G7 Among the Kansa, Paha-'le-gaqli and AH^kawahu, when they 
mvoked the four winds, began at the left (as they were Yata i,eo,>Ie) 
with the East wind (Baza"ta, Toward the Pines), next they turned to 
the South wind (Ak'a, whenceoneof the names of the Ka"ze gens), then 
to the West wind (Ak'a jinga or Ak'uye), and lastly to the North wind 
(Hnita, Toward the Coldj.' (See Fig. 195.) 

It should be noted that those Kansa war captains, Pahaqe-gaqli and 
Aii"kawahu, belong to gentes on the left side of the tribal circle They 
were focing the South before they began the invocations to the various 
powers including the four winds. See § 200 for the order (E S 
\^ , N) observed in felling the tree to be used as a sun pole. The s'ame 



w 



s 

Fig. 195.— Kansa order of invoking the 
winds, etc. 



4 

S 

Fig. 196.— Tsiju (Osage) order of placing the 
four sticks, etc. 



order was observed by the Dakota "priest" in the ceremonies pertain- 
ing to the White Buffalo festival of the Hunkpapa, as related by Miss 
Fletcher: in placing cherries on the plate, in pouring water on the piles 
of cherries, in placing tufts of swan's down on the plate^, in rotatino- 
the plate, in circling the heap of black earth', and in giving the four 
pinches of consecrated meat to the four sons of the owner of the white 
buffalo hide.* 

§ 368. The Tciou old man of the Osage tribe consecrated each mystic 
hearth by placing four sticks in the form of a cross, beginning at the 
west, as shown in Fig. 19G, then laying the sticks at the north, east, and 
south, as he named the four mystic buffaloes (§ 33). This Tsiou man 
belonged to the peace side of his tribe, and he began with the quarters 
referring to the peace elements. But the Pa"qka old man of the same 
tribe, when he consecrated the mystic fireplaces for his half-tribe, began 
on the right, with the stick at the east, as shown in Fig. 197. He 
belonged to the war side of the tribe, though his gens was a peace- 
makiua' sreus ! 



'Am. Naturalist, July, 1885, p. 676. 

'Au. Kept. Peabody Museum, vol. iii, p. 267. 

3Il)id. ]). 268. 

^Iliid. ]>]>. 272, 273. 



526 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



§ 309. The Ma'^yinka and Upa" geutes of the Kansa tribe couse- 
crated the mystic flrephices for their people; but we have not obtained 
the particulars of the Kansa ceremony, which probably resembled that 
in Avhich the Tsiou and Pa"qka old men took part. 

According to Two Crows and the late Joseph La Fleche, there were 
four sacred stones in the custody of the Ma"(|'irdva-gaxe or Earth-lodge- 
makers' gens of the Omaha: red, black, yellow, and blne.^ 

§ 370. Whenever the Osage warriors came in sight of their village on 
returning from an expedition against the enemy, they were met outside 
the village by the principal man of the Ka"se (the Wind or South 
wind gens.) This Ka"se man walked around the warriors, performing 
a ceremony as he started from the north, repeating it at each quarter^ 
and ending with the east, as shown in Fig. 198. 



N 



w- 



Fiii 



l'.)7. — Pa°qka (Osage) order of placing the 
four sticks, etc. 



Fig. 198. — Ka"se (Osaire) order of circuraam- 
biilatiou. 



§ 371. Assuming that we have a correct grouping of the four ele- 
ments in Fig. 194, it appears that Paha"le-gaqli and Ali"kawahu began 
with the quarters associated with war; that the Tsiou old man began 
with those referring to peace, and the ra"fika old man with those per- 
taining to war, and the principal man of the Ka"se gens with those on 
the peace side. 

§ 372. In cutting off the un- 
der skin from a scalp, the Os- 
age war captain — 

stood facing the East * ^ ^ 

E Holding- the scalp in one hand, with 

the other he placed the knife-blade 

across it, with the point toward the 

South (see Fig. 109). Thenhe turned 

the Ivuife with the point toward the 

East. Next, with the bhide resting 

on the scalp, the point to the South, 
Fir,. 199.— ShowinR bow tho Osage prepared tbe ;>c;>!p for , i ^-i i ■<• i i i i 

the dance. he moved the knite backward and 

forward four times, cutting deeper into the .scalp on each occasion. Then he made four 

similar cuts, but with the point to the East. After this, the Hat part of the blade 




'Om. Soc, 3d An. Rept. Bur. Ethu.. p. 242. 



DORSEY.l SYMBOLIC COLORS. 527 

beiii;;,' on the scalp, its edge was put against one of the four corners made by the 
previous incisions (1, 2, 3, and i), beginning with No. 1. He cut under each corner 
four times, singing a sacred song each time that he changed the position of the knife. 
* ' * The scalp was stretched and fastened to a bow, which was bent and formed 
into a hoop. This hoop was tied to a pole, which was carried by the iirinci[)al kettle- 
bearer.' 

Observe that in this ceremouy the tSoiith and P^ast Mere the mystic 
quarters, answering to tlie "bad winds" of the Inke-sabe tradition. 

When the Dakota '-priest," referred to in § 307, wished to rotate the 
plate containing- the cherries and down, he grasped tlie plate with his 
right hand (note tliat the riglit side of the Osage circle was the war 
side) between the east and south piles of cherries and his left hand 
(compare with custom of Tsiou gens of Osage, § 3C8) held the plate 
between the west and north i)i]es.- 

In the Hede-watci, the (Jmaha women and girls danced from the east 
to the south, and thence to the west and north, while the men and boys 
proceeded in a difierent order, beginning at the west, and dancing 
toward the north, and thence toward the east and south.^ 

SYMBOLIC COLORS. 

§ 373. On the tent of Hupe^a (PI. xliv, e), a black bear man, were 
represented four kinds of lightning — blue, red, black, and yellow. This 
^^■■UE was a mystery decoration (§ 4.j), and 

if the colors were associated with the 
four (juarters, the powers were proba- 
bly invoked in the order shown in Fig. 
200. (See ^ 340, 300.) 

RED 

§ 374. Blue is assumed to be the 
earth symbol for two reasons: (1) In 
the decorations of those who have had 
visions of bears, there is a broad blue 
band, representing the earth, out of 
^•^^ which the bear is sometimes depicted 

Fig. 200 — Oniali.i li"liliiiiii;s ami the lour . . ,o\ i .i" j-i , ^i 

ciuiriters. as issuing; (2) and, furthermore, the 

Indians seldom distinguish between blue and green, hence, blue may 
symbolize grass and other vegetation, springing from the earth. In 
apparent contradiction of this use of blue, we are told by Lynd that 
"the Tunkan is painted red as a .sign of active worship" (see § 132), 
and by Riggs (§ 133) that large bowlders were adorned with red and 
green paint, though the use of the two colors may have depended on a 
composite cult. In this connection attenticm is called to the battle 
standards represented on the tent of ^jejequta, an Omaha. These 
painted standards had red and blue stripes, denoting the stripes of 



N 
W 


1 


E 


4. 




2 




• 




S 


3 





'Osage AVar Customs, in Aui. Xaturaliat, Feb., 1884, pp. 131, 132. 

'The west and north are supposed to be tlie jieace quarters, and the east and smUh the \var(]uarters. 
See Fijr. 194 and § 378. 
30tn. Soc, p. 299. 



528 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

ludian cloth, sometimes used instead of feathers on the real standards. 
The latter were carried by the leaders of war parties, and each stand- 
ard could be used on four such expeditious. When the warriors aii- 
j)roached the hostile camp, the keeper of the standard removed the 
scarf of blue aud red cloth from the shaft and wore it around his neck 
as he went to steal horses (see PI. xliv, a, the name Bowlder Thunder- 
being- in § 390, also § 388). 

§ 375. Red is known to be the Omaha color for the east. Amongthe 
Dakota the spear and tomahawk, the weapons of war, were said to 
have been given by the Wakinyan, the Thunder-being' or Fire power; 
hence they are painted red (§ 105). 

The late Dr. S. R. Rigg's informs us that — 

In the tiyotipi were placed the Inindles of the black and red sticks of the soldiers.' 
Toward the rear of the tent, but near enough to the fire for convenient use, is a 
large pipe placed by the symbols of power. These are two bundles of shaved sticks 
about 6 inches long. The sticks in one bundle are painted black and in the other red. 
The black bundle represents the real men of the camp — those who have made their 
mark on the warpath. The red bundle represents the boys and such men as wear no 
eagle feathers. - 

They shave out small round sticks all of the same length, and paint them red, and 
they are given out to the men. These are to constitute the tiyotipi. * * * Of 
all the round shaved sticks, some of which were painted black and some painted 
red, four were especially marked. They are the four chiefs of the tiyotipi that were 
made. 3 

§ 376. Black is assumed to be the symbolic color for the Takuskan- 
skan, the Wind-makers, whose servants are the four winds and the four 
black spirits of night. Black as a war color is put on the face^ of the 
warrior. The Santee Dakota consider the raven (a black bird) aud a 
small black stone, less than a hen's egg in size, symbols of the four 
winds or quarters. Among the Teton Dakota,' the Takuskanskan 
symbols, are small pebbles of two kinds, one white, and, according- to the 
description, translucent; the other "resembles ordinary pebbles," prob- 
ably in being- opaque. 

§ 377. Yellow is assumed to be the color symbolizing water, the west, 
and the setting sun. The Dakota, Omaha, Ponka, and j^oiwere tribes 
have been familiar for years with the color of the water in the Missouri 
river. In a Yankton Dakota legend^ recorded by the author it is said 
that when two mystery men prepared themselves to visit a spirit of the 
water in order to recover an Indian boy, one of the men painted his 
entire body black, and the other painted himself yellow (this seems to 
refer to the south and west, the windmakers and the spirits of the 
waters). 

In certain Omaha tent decoraticms we find that the tent of a Turtle 
man (Fig. IGl) has a yellow ground. A similar yellow ground on the 

' Contr. to N. A. Ethnol., vol. ix, Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography, p. 193. 

2Ibid.,p. 197. 

3 From Renville's account of the tiyotipi, in ibid., pp. 200, 202. 

«Om. Soc, p. 317. Osage War Customs, pp. 118, 119, 124, 131. 

= Contr. y. A. Ethnol., vol. vi. The Cegiha Language, p. 375. 



DORSEY.] 



SYMBOLIC COLORS. 



529 



tent of Ma"tcu-na"ba of the Ilauoa gens (Fig. 174) may be connected 
with the tradition that the llanga geus came originally from beneath the 
water. Too much stress, however, must not be placed upon the colors 
of such mystery decorations, as they may be found hereafter to have 
had another origin. It is conceivable, although we have no means of 
proving it, that he who had a vision, depicted on his robe and tent not 
only the colors pertaining to the objects seen in the vision, but also the 
color pecnliar to the eponymic ancestor or power that was the " nikie" 
(§ 53). As some men were members of more than one order of 
shamans, their tent and robe decorations may refer to the one order 
rather than to the other, and sometimes there may be a reference to 
both orders. The yellow on the top of the tent of Frog, an Ictasanda 
man, was said to refer to a grizzly bear vision {Jide George Miller, an 
Omaha — see Fig. 177.) But when we compare it with PI. xliv, d, show- 
ing the tent of a Hahga man, who was a Buffalo shaman as well as 
a Grizzly Bear shaman, we find that the top of the latter tent has a 
yellow band (apparently pointing to the Hafiga tradition of an aquatic 
origin), as well as a blue band at the bottom (referring to the grizzly 
bear vision). 

§ 378. From what has been said respecting the figures 194-199, we 
are led to make the following provisional coordinations : 



Dakota soil. 


Element . 


Qnarter. 


Co 


or. 


Tunkan 

Wakiuyan 

Takuiikanskau - 
Unktelii 


Earth 

File 


North 


Blue 1 

j;,.(l 1 


East 

South 


Wiudinakers. .. 
Water 


IJhick 1 


West 


Tellow 









Note. — The uaines of the Dakota gods are giveu because we have more inlorma- 
tioD about them, aud the exact Omaha equivalent for Takuskanskan has uot beeu 
obtained. 



§ 379. Miss Fletcher gave, in 1884, a list of symbolic colors, which 
differs somewhat from that which the author has suggested in the pre- 
ceding section. She said : 

White, Line, red, and yellow possess different meaning, yet are not very clearly 
determined by all tribes. ' Among the Dakotas the following interpretation i)revails : 
White is seldom used artificially; when it occurs in nature, as the white buffalo, 
deer, rabbit, etc., and on the plumage of birds, it indicates consecration. The sacred 
feathers and down are always white,- the former being taken from the under jiart of 
the eagle's wing and are soft and downy. This meaning of white holds good with 
the Omalias, Poncas, etc., and seems to have a wide a])plication among the Indians. 
Blue represents the winds, the west, the moon, the water, the thunder, and some- 
times the lightning. * * * Red indicates the sun, the stone, the forms of animal 
and vegetable life, the procreati ve force. Yellow represents sunlight as distinguished 
from the fructifying power of the sun.' 



' The author accepts thia without he.sitation. 

2 Yet the.so feathers and down are often colored: see JJ 112. 116, i:i2. 2:i9, 242, and 263. 
3An. Keiit. Peahody Museum, Vol. Ul, p. 285, note 10. Written in 1882. 
11 ETH 34 



530 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

The author has never observed this use of white as a symbolic color. 
lu speaking of albino animals, we infer that to the Siouan mind they 
are consecrated because they are rare. In fact, Miss Fletcher says: 

The white buffalo is rare and. generally remains near the center of the herd, which 
makes it difficult of approach. It is therefore considered as thex;hief or sacred one 
of the herd; and it is consequently greatly prized by the Indians.' 

While the author is convinced of the great value of Miss Fletcher's 
investigations, he inquires concerning the veracity of her interpreters. 
He would like to see more detailed evidence before he accepts as the 
Dakota classification one which puts in the same category not only the 
winds and thunder, but also the water, the west, and the moon. He 
also asks why should the moon be separated from the sun (see § 138), 
and why should the w^est be the only quarter symbolized by a color ! 
Besides, the Dakota shamans say that the Thunder-beings are of four 
colors, black, yellow, scarlet, and blue (see § IIG). 

In response to the wish of the author. Miss Fletcher has kindly fur- 
nished him with the following letter of explanation, received after the 
rest of the paper had been written : 

Consecration as applied to the color white in the article you have quoted needs a 
few words of explanation. 

The almost universal appropriation of white animals to religious ceremonies is 
unquestionable; whether this selection rests wholly upon the rarity of this color is a 
little doubtful. The unusual is generally wakan; this feeling, however, is not con- 
fined to a color, and although the white buffalo and the white deer are not often met 
with, other white animals, as the rabbit, are not uncommon, nor are white feathers. 
It is true these white feathers are often colored for ceremonial uses, but the added 
colors have their particular meanings, and these do not seem to override the j)rimal 
signification that the feathers selected to bear these symbolic colors are white. The 
natural suggestion that a white ground would best serve to set off the added lines 
may have been in the distant past the simple reason why white feathers were chosen ; 
and this choice adhered to for generations would at last become clothed with a mys- 
terious significance. If this were ever true, this reason for choosing white feathers 
is not recognized to-day. I have beeu frequently told, the feathers must be Avhite. 

While I should now hesitate to say that white symbolizes consecration, still, after 
continued study, Ifindthe idea clingingabout the color, which, as I said then, is sel- 
dom artificially used. 

Various symbolic colors are not infrequently placed upon one object, so that tne 
combining of symbols,^ or even their occasional exchange, docs not seem discordant 
to the Indian mind; fhis fact among others renders it difficult to draw a hard and 
fast line about any OTie color or symbol. 

Further research has shown me that green and blue and black are related and that 
to a degree green and blue are interchangeable. Blue is regarded as a darkened 
green; that is, green removed from the light, not deepened in hue. Blue, therefore, 
stands intermediate between green which has the light on it, and blue shaded into 
black, which has no light on it. In some ceremonies green typifies the earth; in 
others blue is the symbol. The sky is sometimes representedby green, and again blue 
is used, while blue darkened to black stands for the destructive elements of the air. 



'An. Kept. Pcabody Museiun, Vol. in, p. 260. 

'Ah it was customary for geutes of the same phratry to exchange personal names, a (Kansa) l)eer 
name, for inst.-ince, being given to a (Kansa) Bufialo man, and vice verm, tlie author thinks that an 
exchange of s\-mbolic colors might be expected. Compare what Matthews tells about the exchange 
of white aiul black among the Navajo, in § 380. 



'^OKSEY] SYMBOLIC COLORS. 531 

I have found a subtle connection between the elenientH of earth and air that 
answers somewhat to the blendinfj of the symbolic colors just spoken of. This con- 
nection is revealed in the reciprocal or complementary functions of gentes belonging 
to these two great divisions represented in the tribal structure, as well as in the 
reactionary character of the elements themselves as jiortrayed in the myths and typi- 
fied in some ceremonies. For instance, the eagle mythically belongs to the air, and 
is allied to the destructive powers of the element and to wars upon the earth, yet the 
Eagle gens, although connected with the air division of the gentes, is in some tribes 
a peace gens. An enemy escaping to the tent of an Eagle man is safe and can not be 
molested. In symbols eagle feathers are not only the pride and emblem of the war- 
rior but they are essential in certain ceremonies of amity and pea(!e-making. 

A study of the position of gentes belonging to the divisions of earth and air, their 
tribal and ceremonial duties, together with their mythological significance, shows 
lines connecting the gentes of the earth witli the gentes of the air wliich are vertical, 
so to speak, and might be represented as running north and south on tlie tribal circle, 
and indicating mediating offices as between contending or opposite forces. 

It would occupy too much space to fully set forth my reasons for thinking blue- 
black to be the symbol of the thunder ratlier than red and yellow. Although thunder 
is allied to the four quarters, to the four elemental divisions and partakes of their 
symbolism, still a study of thunder myths, thunder-names, and the tribal offices of 
thunder gentes seems to me, at my present understanding of them, to indicate the 
blue-black as the persistent symbol. 

I would not at this date make any un«iualified statement giving green, blue, or black 
as the symbol of the west, the water, or the moon ; and although in some instances these 
colors occur in connection with these objects of reverence, I am now inclined to class 
these as incidental rather than as representative of the color symbols. 

f)ne word regarding red and yellow. Red not only represents the sun and the pro- 
creative forces (yet black is sometimes used in the latter), but the color carries with 
it the idea of hope, the continuation of life. The dawn of the day, the east, is almost 
without exceiition in these tribes denoted by red. This red line, forceful, aggressive, 
yet life giving and hope-inspiring, starts from a war division of the tribal circle and 
fades into yellow as it piusses into an opposite peace division in the west. Red and 
yellow bear to each other a relation somewhat resembling that of blue and black, 
only reversed; the red loses its intensity in yellow, the aggressive force symbolized 
in the red is not expressed in the yellow. If the Indian's world were arched witli liis 
symbolic colors, we should see a brilliant band of red start from the east and fade to 
yellow in the west; while the green-blue line from the north would deepen to the 
black of the south. In the first the intense color would rush from war into the mild 
light of peace ; the second bright hue would spring from peace to be lost in the dark- 
ness of war. Thus the two hold the tribe within the opi)osing yet complementary 
forces which constitute tlie mystery of the relation between life and death. 

I will not go further into this interesting subject nor revert to the revolution of 
these symbolic colors as throwing light on tribal migrations and history. 

Thanking you for this opportunity to modify some of my statements written nine 

years ago, 

I remain, cordially yours, 

Alice C. Fletchkk. 
Pkabody MuSEfM, 

Cambridge, Mass., Janiiarif 3, 1891. 

Ill the Word Carrier of November, 1890, published by A. L. Riggs, 
at Santee Agency, Nebr., is uii article on page 30, from Mary C. Collins, 
who is evidently one of the mission workers. She says: ''I went into 
the sacred tent and talked with Sitting Bull. lie sat * * * oppo- 
site the tent door. Hands and wrists were painted yellow and greeny 



532 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



face painted red, green, and white." (Did the four colors refer to the 
elements?) "As I started toward him he said, 'Winona,' approach me 
on the left side and shake my left hand with your left hand.'" (Does 
the gens of Sitting Bull camp on the left side of the tribal circle, 
occasioning the use of the left in all ceremonies, as among the Tsiou 
gentes of the Osage? Or is the left the war side among the people of 
Sitting Bull, as among the Kansa? See §§ 33 and 368.) 

§ 380. The following are the symbolic colors of the North Carolina 
Cherokee, the Ojibwa, the Navajo, the Apache, the Zuiii, and the 
Aztec : 



Quarter, 
etc. 


Cherokee. 
(a) 


Ojibwa. 


Navajo. 


Apache. 


Zuiii. 


Aztec. 


(6) 


(c) 


(d) 


ie) 


(f) 


(9) 


(h) 


(») 


East 


Ked, 1.... 


White. 


Red.-.. 


White, 1 . . 


Yellow 


Black . . . 


YeUow. 


White, 4. 


Yellow. 


South 


White, 4. 


Green . 


Green . . 


Blue, 2 


Red . . . 


White . . 


Green or 
Blue.. 


Ked, 3 . . . 


White. 


West 


Black, 3.. 


Ked . . . 


White . 


Yellow, 3 . 


Blue. . . 


Yellow.. 


Black . . 


Blue, 2 . . 


Blue. 


North 


Blue, 2 . . . 


Black . 


Black.. 


Black, 4... 


White. 


Blue .... 


White . 


Yellow,! 


Red. 


Upper world 








Blue 








All col- 


















or.s, 5. 












White and 
black in 








Black, 6. 




























spots. 












Sanligtit 








Ked 
























1 







a Mooney, in Jour. Am. Folklore, Vol. in, No. 8, Jan. -Mar., 1890, pp. 49, 50. 

6 Hotfman, in Am. Anthropologist, July, 1889, pp. 217,218; from Sicosige, a second-degree Mide 
of White Earth, Minn. 

e Hoffman, iu ibid., p. 218; from Ojibwa, a fourth-degree Mide, from another locality. 

d Matthews, in 5th An. Kept. Bur. Eth., p. 449. 

e Mallery, from Thos. V. Ream's catalogue of relics of the ancient buildings of the southwest 
table-lauds— quoted in Trans. Anthrop. Soc. of Washington, Vol. ill, 141, 1885. 

/ Gatschet, on Chiricahua Apache sun circle, in Trans. Anthrop. Soc. of Washington, Vol. Ill, 
147, 1885. 

(J Capt. J. G. Bourke, in a letter to the author, Dec. 4, 1890. In Nov., 1885, he obtained from a 
San Carlos (Pinal) Apache green as the color for the north. 

h Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, iu 5th An. Rept. Bur. Eth., p. 548. According to Dr. J. Walter Fewkes the 
Hopi or Moki have a similar order of colors, the west having green (or blue). 

i Kingsborough, Anticiuities of Mexico, Vol. vil ( fide Capt. J. G. Bourke). 

According to Gatschet the Chiricalma Apache call the sun, when 
in the east, " the black sun," and a tornado or gust of wind also is called 
"black." (See §378.) 

Matthews says that in rare cases white is assigned to the north and 
black to the east, and that black represents the male and blue the 
female among the Navajo. (See § 105 of this paper.) 

§ 381. The author calls special attention to the colors of the four 
sacred stones of the Omaha Wolf gens, red, black, yellow, and blue 
i. e., E., S,, W., N. ; see § 309), and to those on the tent of an Omaha 
Black Bear man (see § 373, and PL. xliv, e, where the colors are given 
in the order N., E., S., W.). He has uot'yet gained the colors for the 
upper and lower worlds, though the Omaha offer the pipe to the " vener- 

' Winona, name of the first child if a daughter, not "first daughter." 



DOKSEv.i COLORS IN PERSONAL NAMES. 533 

able man sittings above" and to tlie " venerable man below lying ou his 
back/' (§127.) 

In the tradition of the Tsiou wacta5[e gens of the Osage there is an 
account of the finding of four kinds of rocks, black, blue or green, red, 
and white. And from the left hind legs of fonr buH'alo bulls there 
droi)[)ed to the ground four ears of corn and four i)unipkins.' The corn 
and piinipkiu from the first buffalo were red, those from the second were 
spotted, those fron-i the third were cade, i. e., dark or distant-black, and 
those from the fourth were white. 

Green, black, white, and gray are the traditional colors of the ances- 
tral wolves, according to the Wolf people of the Winnebago, though for 
"green" we may substitute '"blue," as the corresponding name for the 
first son in that gens is Blue Sky. Among the personal names in the 
Thunder-being subgens of the Winnebago are the tour color names, 
Green Thunder-being, Black Thunder-being, White Thunder-being, and 
Yellow Thunder-being (instead of Gray). James Alexander, a member 
of the Wolf gens, said that these four Thunder-being names did not 
refer to the four quarters. This seems probable, unless white be the 
Winnebago color for the east and gray or yeUow that for the west. 

lu November, 1893, more than two years after the ])rcceding sentence 
was written, a Winnebago told the author that among his people white 
was associated with the north, red with the west, and green with the 
south. Of these he was certain. He thought that blue was the color 
for the east, but he was not positive about it. 

COLORS IN PERSONAL NAMES. 

§ 382. The following shows the color combinations in a list of forty- 
six objects taken from the census schedules of the Dakota, Hidatsa, 
and Mandan tribes (LT. S. Census of 1880), the lists of Dakota names 
given in the Fourth Annual Keport of the Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 
175, 177-180, and the list of Winnebago names collected by the author. 
Blue or green (chiefly blue), 2G; red, 2.j; black, 31; yellow, 30; scarlet, 
38; white, 37; gray, 18; saij or distant- white (whitish), 4; rusty-yellow 
or brown (gi), IS; spotted, 17; and striped, 8. Objects combined with 
two colors, 7; with three colors, 7; with four coh)rs, 4; with five colors, 
5; with six colors, 5; with seven colors, G; with eight colors, 6; with 
nine colors, 5 ; with ten colors, 1 ; with all eleven colors, none. It should, 
however, be remembered that the lists consulted did not contain all the 
personal names of the Siouan tribes which have been mentioned, and 
that it is probable there would be found more color combinations if all 
the census schedules were accessible. We can not say whether each of 
the colors (including spotted and striped) has a mystic significance in 
the Siouan mind. Perhaps further study may show that red (sa) and 
scarlet (duta, luta) have the same symbolic meaning, and rusty-yellow 
(gi) may be an equivalent of yellow (zi). 

' Osage Traditions, in 6th Au. Kept. Bur. Ethii.. p. :!"». 



534 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

THE EARTH POWERS, 

§ 383. The Tunkaii or bowlder, the Dakota name for the Earth pow- 
ers, is also called the Liiigam by Kiggs (§ 132), as if coiiuected with a 
plialliccult (§§ 164, etc.). The Earth powers (Tunkan) and the Wind- 
makers (Takiiskanskau) are said by the Dakota to have a common 
symbol ; l)nt is not the symbol of the Takuskanskan a pebble (§ 376) ? In 
the Kaiisa war chart (see §127) does the large (red) rock refer to the 
Earth powers? And does the small rock refer to the Wind-makers? The 
Earth powers and the Wind-makers seem to be associated in some de- 
gree: (a) In the use of the rock symbol (if the Takuskanskan symbol 
be a true rock), and {h) in the use, among the Omaha, of eagle birth- 
names in the social divisions called " Keepers of the pipes." This lat- 
ter rests upon the assumption that the lake-sabe is a bufl'alo gens 
which should be regarded as having some connection with the Earth 
cult. When the Omaha chiefs assembled in council the two sacred 
l)ipes were filled by the Ictasanda keeper (a member of a Fire and 
Water gens) ; but they were carried around the council lodge by the 
luke-sabe and j^e-da-it'aji keepers. The Inke-sab6 keeper started 
around the lodge with one of the pipes; when he had gone halfway 
(i, e., as far as the entrance) the j^e-da-it'aji keeper stiu-ted from the 
back of the lodge with the other pipe, taking care to keep behind the 
Ifike-sabe keeper just half the circumference of the circle.^ The x^ da- 
it'aji man belonged to the Eagle or Wind-makers subgens and the 
Inke-sabe man to one that we term provisionally an Earth gens. (See 
Fig. 11>1.) The Inke-sabe, it is true, have a tradition that they came 
originally from the water; but the buffalo is specially associated with 
the earth. Among the Dakota the buffalo and the earth are regarded 
as one. (§ 239.) 

KARTH GENTE8. 

The Earth gentes, as far as we can judge, are as follows: luke-sabe 
and Hariga(?), two Buffalo gentes, and the Wasabe-hit'aji, a Black 
bear subgens, among the Omaha; the Wacabe and Maka" (Buffalo 
gentes,) among the Pouka; the Ma"yihka (Earth) and Wasabe (Black 
bear), of the Kansa; the Earth and Black bear of the Osage; Black 
bear, and perhaps Wolf, among the Iowa and Oto; Black bear, of the 
Missouri; and Black bear and Wolf of the Winnebago. The Black 
bear i)e()])le of the Winnebago were the only men of that tribe who 
enforced discipline in time of war and acted as policemen when there 
was peace. The tradition of the Winnebago Wolf gens names four 
brothers that were (;reated. The first was green fsic] and was named 
]51u(' Sky (referring to day). The second was black, and his name re- 
ferred to night. The third was white and the fourth was gray. The 
green, black, and white wolves have remained in their subterranean 

' Om. Soc, in 3d An. Kept. Bur. Ethn., pp. 223, 224. 



°0KSEY.] THE FIRE P0V7ERS. 535 

abodes. Thej' are never seen by maukind. The gray wolf was the 
ancestor of all the wolves which are seen above ground. (See § 90.) 
These four colors are evidently symbolic; but the author has not yet 
learned whether they have any reference to the four quarters. (See 

§75.) 

THE FIRE POWERS. 

§ 384. Among these were the Thunder-beings and the Sur.. The 
former were usully considered maleficent powers, as distinguished from 
the Sun, the beneficent Fire power; but occasionally the Thunder- 
beings were addressed as " grandfathers," who could be induced to 
gratify the wishes of the suppliants by granting them success in war 
(§§ 35, 36). It was probably with reference to the Sun that the East 
was considered the source of light and life, the West being associated 
with the taking of life in the chase or on the war path (see § 28). Red 
among the Omaha is the color symbol of the East, but red is also 
symbolic of war. The "fire paint" among the Tsiou geutes of the 
Osage tribe is red. It is applied when the fire prayers are said. Ked 
is a war color among the Dakota, Omaha, Kansa, and Osage. The 
Tsiou crier received in his left hand a knife with the handle painted red. 
The Haiiiia crier received in his right hand a hatchet with the handle 
reddened. On the death of a comrade the surviving Osage removed the 
bark from a post oak, say, about 5 feet from the grouml, painted the 
blazed tree red, broke four arrows and left them and some paint by the 
tree.' Whenever the author saw Paha°le-gaqli, one of the war chiefs 
of the Kansa, he noticed that the man's face was painted red all over. 
In the middle of the war chart of Paha°le-gaqli was a fire symbol; but 
the chief feared to represent it in the copy which he made for the 
author. It probably consisted of the four firebrands placed at right 
angles and meeting at a common center. The Omaha must have had 
such a symbol at one time (see § 33). The Osage had it, according to 
their tradition (see §§ 40, 305). The successful warriors among the 
Omaha could redden their weapons when they joined in the dance.^ 

The Dakota give the following as the sentinels for the Wakinyan : 
The deer at the north, the butterfly at the east, the beaver at the south, 
and the bear at the west (§ 116). If these were arranged to conform 
to the order of Fig. 194 the bear would be at the north, the beaver at 
the west, the deer at the east, and the butterfly at the south. But there 
may be a special order of grouping the servants of each class of pow- 
ers differing from the order of the four powers themselves. The 
Dakota wakan men say that the Wakinyan are of four colors, black, 
yellow, scarlet, and blue (§ 116). The Thunder men of the Omaha 
legend had hair of diflerent colors, the first having white hair, the sec- 
ond red, the third yellow, and the fourth -green hair. -' 

"Osage war customs, iu Am. Xaturalist, Feb., 1884, pp. 118. 126, 132, 
20m. Soo., in 3(1 An. Kept. Bur. Etlin., pi(:>329, 330. 
3 Contr. X. A. Etlm., Vol. vi. p. 187. 



536 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

FIRK GENTES. 

The following appear to be the Fire geutes: Tli under-being people of 
the Omaha tribe, Elk gens. Small-bird subgens. Deer, and Ictasauda 
(Keptile and Thunder-being) gentes; the Hisada and Black bear geutes 
of the Ponka; the Lu or Gray hawk people (also called Thunder-being 
l)eople) of the Kansa tribe, with whom are associated the Deer and 
Butlalo geutes m the singing of the Thunder songs (§ 36); the ;5jfu'^' 
or Thunder-beiug gens, on the Tsiou, Buftalo, or Peace side of the 
Osage tribe (!!), perhaps the Tcexi:|a, a bird gens of the Iowa tribe; 
part of the Tcexi:>a gens of the Oto and Missouri tribes; and the 
Waka"tcara or Thunder-being subgens of the Winnebago. 

Four Thunder-beings were invoked by the Ictasauda gens (§ 35) : 
^'ig<|'ize-ma"(|'i", ^ia°ba-tigf^e, <pia"ba-gi-na°, and Gaagig^eda''. Was each 
of these supposed to dwell at one of the four quarters'? 

Among the Osage and Kansa tribes there is a geus known as the 
Mi" k'i" (from mi", the sun, and k'i", to carry a load on the back), ren- 
dered "Sun Carriers." Some of the Osage insisted that this name re- 
ferred to the buffalo instead of the suu, as that animal carries a robe 
or plenty of hair on his back; and they maintained that the Mi" k'i" 
was a buftalo gens. That there is some connection in the Indian mind 
between the sun and the buffalo is shown in the sun dance, in which 
the figure of a buffalo bull (§ 164) and buffalo skulls (§§ 147, 173, 176, 
177, 181, and 108, and PI. XLViii) play important parts. 

THE WIND-MAKER.S. 

§ 385. The Takuskanskan of the Dakotas has been described in a 
previous chapter (§§ 127-131). The Omaha tribe has the order of the 
I"-kug^i or the translucent stone, in which order the Wind-makers 
were probably invoked. The Tsiou old man addressed the four winds 
and as many mystic buffaloes when he laid down the four firebrands. 
And at a similar ceremony the old man of the Pa"qka gens addressed 
the four winds and as many mystic deer (§ 33). The Omaha evidently 
had a prayer, "Ho, ye four firebrands that meet at a common point!" 
(§ 40.) With this there may have been addresses to the winds. Four 
firebrands were used in a Winnebago ceremony (§84). 

The Inke-sabe (Omaha) belief as to the four winds has been related 
in § 366,- The winds and the sun were associated in the ceremony of 
raising the suu pole, judging from what Bushotter has written (§ 167). 
There was also some connection in the Dakota mind between the winds 
and the buffalo. Compare the figure of the winds on a buffalo skull 
as^ described by Miss Fletcher^ in her account of the sun dance. 

'A Kansa saying: Lij, Tceduuga, Taqtci abacki wauaxe kinuklye, abe au, They saij that the Thun- 
der-being, Buffalo, and Deer gentes muse a ghost to "kinu," referring to some effect on a gliost which 
can not bo explained. 

"Om. Soc, in ;i(l An. Kept. Bur. Ktliii., ]i. 229. 

3An). A.ssoc. Adv. Sci. Proc, Vol. :!I. p. 58:i. See, too. An. Kei>l. I'eabody Mu.seiiiu, Vol. in, p. 262, lines 



DORSEY] WIND AND WATER POWERS. 537 

WIND GKNTES. 

The following- social divisions are assigned to this category: The 
Aia"ze, or Wind people, and the xe-da-it'aji, Tonch-not-a-bairalo-skull, 
or Eagle people, of the Omaha tribe; the (pixida and Kikadaona gentes 
of the Ponka; the Ka"ze (Wind or South Wind people), Qiiya (White 
eagle). Ghost, and perhaps the Large Ilanga (Black eagle), among tlie 
Kansa; the Ka"se (also called the Wind and South Wind people), and 
perhaps the Han^ia ntafan^se (Black eagle) gens of the Osage; the 
Pigeon and Buffalo gentes of the Iowa and Oto tribes; the Hawk and 
Momi (Small bird) subgenter, of the Missouri tribe; the Ea^le and 
Pigeon, and perhaps the Hawk subgens of tlie Winnebago Bird gens. 

EACH (ilAUTEK REtKOXEI) AS THREE. 

Each wind or quarter is reckoned as three by the Dakota ' and pre- 
sumably by the Osage (see § 42), making- the four quarters equal to 
twelve. Can there be any reference here to a belief in three worlds, 
the one in which we live, an upper world, and a world beneath this one? 
Or were the winds divided into three classes, those close to the ground, 
those in mid air, and those very high in the air? The Kansa seem to 
make some such distinction, Judging from the names of the divisions of 
the Ka°ze or Wind gens of that tribe. 

XAMES KEFERRIXG TO OTHER WORLDS. 

References to a world supposetl to be above that one in which we 
dwell occur in some of the personal names of the Dakota, in the U. S. 
Census list of 1880. There we tind such names as, Wolf Up-above, 
Hawk Up-above, Grizzly-bear Up-above, and Buffalo-bull Up-above. 
Grizzly-bear Up above should be taken in connection with the tradition 
of the Black-bear people of the Osage tribe. These people tell how 
their ancestors descended from the upper world, bringing fire.^ The 
tradition of the Wolf people of the Winnebago tribe tells of the creation 
of their ancestors as wolves in a subterranean world, and of a belief 
that many wolves remain there still. The Winnebago have, too, the 
name. Second Earth Person, referring to a waktceqi or watermonster, 
as the waktceqi are supposed to dwell in the world beneath this one. 
They call this world The First World, and the .subterranean one The 
Second W^orld. 

THE WATER POWERS. 

§ 386. The Unktelii of the Dakota answers to the Wakandagi of the 
Omaha and Ponka, and the Waktceqi of the Winnebago. One of the 
Omaha myths relates to a AVakandagi with seven heads. The Waktceqi 
have the Loon as a servant, and in this respect they resemble the tyrant 

'Compare An. Kept. Peabody Mnseuin, Vol.3, p. 289, note 1. 
'Osage War CuHtonis. in Anier. Naturalist, Feli. 1884, p. 133. 



538 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

U-twa'-5|e of the j[,oiwere myth. The name utwa5[e is now given to the 
iiuiskrat. The male Water powers inhabit streams, and the females 
dwell under the ground, presumably in subterranean streams. Accord- 
ing to Winnebago belief, they support the weight of the hills. Some of 
the Omaha thought that these powers dwelt under the hills {§§ 77, 107), 
The monsters supposed to inhabit bogs were probably a species of 
water spirits (§ 254). Streams were invoked as " Wakanda " by the 
Omaha (§ 23). Though the natural habitat of the buttalo is the surface 
of the earth, and the Dakota believe the animal to be of subterranean 
origin, he is of subaquatic origin according to the traditions of the 
Inke-sabe and Hafiga gentes of the Omaha.^ But no traces of such a 
belief have been found among the buffalo gentes of cognate tribes. 
" One day, when the principal man of the people not known as the Wa- 
(figije subgens of the Inke-sabe, was fastiug and praying to the sun- 
god,'-' he saw the ghost of a buffalo, visible from the tiauk up, arising 
from a spring."^ 

WATER PEOPLE. 

The Water people among the Omaha are the Turtle subgens, parts 
(if not all) of the Inke-sabe and Hafiga (Buffalo) gentes, and perhaps a 
part of the Ictasanda gens. Those among the Ponka have not yet been 
ascertained ; but they may be the Wajaje and part of the Hisada. 
Among the Kansa they are the Turtle people. In the Osage tribe are 
the Turtle Carriers, Ke 5[atsli (said to be a turtle, but probably a Water- 
monster), Fish, Beaver, and, perhaps, theTsewafe or Pond Lil}^ people. 
Among the Iowa and Oto are the Beaver gentes. And the Winnebago 
have the Water-monster gens. 

CAUTIONS AND QUERIES. 

§ 387. There are many gentes and subgentes which can not be assigned 
to any of the four categories of elemental powers for want of evidence. 
It is unsafe to argue that, because two buffalo gentes of the Omaha 
cUiim a subaquatic origin, all buffalo gentes should be regarded as 
Water people. Certain cautions should be kept in mind. 

§ 388. The power of each of the four classes of elemental gods extends 
beyond its special element. For instance, the Unktehi, who rules in 
the water, has for his servants or allies, the black owl in the forest 
(Query: Has this any connection with the fire or thunder!), eagles in 
the air, and serpents in the earth. And the Thunder-beings have as 
their servants, the bear, whose abode is in the ground, the beaver, who 
is associated with the water, the butterfly, who lives in the air; and 
the deer. 

§ 389. The servants of a class of elemental gods do not necessarily 
belong- to that element which those gods regulate. Thus, the Black 

'Oin. Soc, iu 3d. An. Kept. Bur. Etbn., pp. 229, 233. 

■■* Syniboliziuij the fire. 

'This seems to point to :i .subaquatic origin. See Om. Soc, p. 231. 



^oRi^EY.] COMPOSITE NAMES. 539 

bear people of the Omalui, an earth people, assist the Elk people in the 
worship of the Thunder; and among the Kansa. the Ikitialo people per- 
form a similar service for the Lu or Thunder-being people (§§ 35, 36). 

Those who belong to the same phratry, belong to the same social 
division; but while they "sing the mystery songs together," they need 
not be assigned to the same elemental category. 

§ 390. As the order of Thunder shamans is composed of those who 
have had dreams or visions of the sun, moon, stars, Tluinder-beings, or 
some other superterrestial objects or phenomena, may not all super- 
terrestial beings, including those of the "upper world," be regarded as 
Thunder-beings by the Indians? (See § 45 and the Thunder-being 
names in § 393.) 

That is to say, may not the eagles, and other birds of the "upper 
world" be Eagle Thunder-beings, Crow Thunder-beings, etc., though 
their special element is not the fire but the "wind-makers," and the 
grizzly bears who reside under ground in that upper world, have given 
rise to the personal name, Grizzly-bear Thunder- being? If this be cor- 
rect, then Bowlder Thunder-being may refer to a bowlder in the upper 
world, unless the supposition respecting composite names (in § 392) be 
true. 

§ 391. The following appears at first sight to be the proper classifica- 
tion of the subgentes of a Bird gens in a few of the Siouan tribes: 
Thunder-bird, Eagle, Hawk, and Pigeon. But a study of personal 
names has led to a modification of this grouping: for we find such 
names as Eagle Thunder-being, Hawk Thunder-being, and Pigeon 
Thunder-being, as distinguished from ordinary eagles, hawks, and 
pigeons. Hence, we may find on further study that in some tribes there 
are eagle, hawk, and pigeon names for gentes and subgentes whose 
patron gods are Thunder-beings. For instance, the Lij gens of the 
Kansa tribe has two names for itself, Leda" nikaci"ga. Gray hawk 
People, and Lu nikaci'^ga, Thunder-being People. 

COMPOSITE NAMES. 

§ 392. There are other composite names, most of which are found in 
the census lists of the Dakota tribes, whose gentes are said to have no 
animal names, and a few have been obtained from the personal name 
lists of the Omaha, Ponka, and Kansa, and the census lists of the 
Mandau, and Hidatsa, that give animal names to some or all of their 
gentes. In the Winnebago name list no such personal names have 
been found, though that people has animal names for its gentes. 

Each of these composite names may refer to a vision of a composite 
being, who was subsequently regarded as the guardian spirit of the 
person who had the dream or vision. Or the bearer of such a name 
may have had a dream or vision of two distinct powers. In the picto- 
graph of such a name, the powers (or symbols of the two i)owers) rep- 
resented in the name are joined (see § 374). 



540 



A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



§ 393. The following is a list of composite names which may be found 
to symbolize the four elements. The elements are designated by their 
respective abbreviations: E for earth, F for fire; A for air, and W for 
water. The interrogation mark after any name denotes a provisional 
or conjectural assignment. 



Turtle Grizzly-bear (W+E). 
Grizzly-hear Small-bird (E+A). 
Cloud Grizzly-bear (Ff |-E). 
Grizzly-bear Buffalo-bull (E+ ?). 
Fire Grizzly-bear (F-f E). 
Sun Grizzly-bear (F+E). 
Ghost Grizzly-bear (f-fE). 
Grizzly-bear Weasel, given as "Weasel 

Bear"in4tli An. Kept. Bur. Etb.,Pl. 

LXix, No. 174. 
Iron Grizzly-bear ("Iron" is generally 

denoted by blue in the Dakota picto- 

graphs. See ^ 107. ) 
Bald-eagle Grizzly-bear (A?+E). 
Shield Grizzly-bear. (The shield is on the 

bear's side, 4th Eth., PI. LXiii, No. 62.) 
Crow Grizzly-bear. 
Whirlwind Grizzly-bear. (The whirlwind 

precedes in the pictograph, 4th Eth., 

PI. LViii, No. 77.) 
Hawk Thunder-being. 
Pigeon Thunder-being. (A jLoiwere name 

— not yet found in Dakota.) 
Buffalo-bull Thunder-being. 
Grizzly-bear Thunder-being (E+F). 
Fire Thunder-being (F+F). 
Elk Thunder-being. 
Pipe Thunder-being. (4th Eth., PI. LXXi, 

No. 179, a winged pipe.) 
Cloud Thunder-being. 
Horse Thunder-being. 
Iron Thunder-being. (See ^S 107.) 
Earth Thunder-being (E+F.) 
Black-Bird Eagle. 

Eagle Hawk. (4th Eth., PI. lvi. No. 53.) 
Eagle Small-bird. (4th Eth., PI. Lxvi, No. 

116.) 
Grizzly-bear Eagle. (4th Eth., PI. lxix, 

No. 170; a bear with an eagle's tail.) 
Horse Eagle. (4th Eth., PI. LXViii, No. 

153: horse body and eagle's tail.) 
Dog Eagle. (4th Eth. , PI. lii. No. 9 : dog 

with eagle's tail.) 
Eagle Swallow. (4th Eth., PI. lxxix, No. 

282 ; eagle with forked tail of a swal- 
low). 
Cloud Eagle. 
Iron Deer. 
Cloud Dog. 



Buffalo-bull Small-bird. 

Mountain Buffalo-bull. 

Crow Buffalo-bull. 

Buffalo-bull Dog. 

Cloud Buffalo-bull. 

Buffalo-bull Man (i. e., Indian). 

Buffalo-bull Ghost. 

Stone Buffalo-bull. 

Buffalo-bull Buffalo-cow (the only nnme 

in which both sexes are given). 
Iron Bnffalo-bull. (See v) 107.) 
Buffalo-bull Wiud. 
Buffalo-cow Eagle. 
Iron Buffalo. (N. B. — It is uncertain 

to which element the buffalo should be 

assigned. He seems to be associated 

with all of them.) 
Sun-dog (F?+E?). 
Eagle Thunder-Being (A? + F). 
Elk Eagle. (4th Eth., PI. Lxx, No. 178; 

an elk's horns and eagle's tail. ) 
Sun Eagle (F+A). 
Star Eagle (Ff-fA). 
Stone Eagle (E?+ A). 
Iron Eagle. 
Crow Eagle. 
Owl Eagle. 
Weasel Eagle. 
Grizzly-bear Hawk. 
Fire Hawk. 

Sciirlet Hawk Whirlwind. 
Hawk Ghost. 
Iron Hawk. (4th Eth., PI. LVI, No. 47 : the 

hawk is blue.) 
Iron Wolf. 
Wolf Ghost. 
Fire Wind (F+A). 
Fire Lightning. 
Iron Lightning. 
Iron Star. 
Iron Boy. (4th Eth., PI. Lvm, No. 81; a 

boy painted blue.) 
Iron Crow. (4th Eth., PI. lvi, No. 47; 

a crow painted blue.) 
Crow Ghost. 
Iron Elk. 
Female-elk Boy, (4th Eth., PI. lvii, No. 

66; the head and shoulders of a boy 

joined to a female elk.) 



DORSEY] PERSONAL NAMES FROM HORNED BEINGS. 541 

Iron Uog. Heriuaphrodite Ghost ( ! ) 

Dog Ghost. Iron Kiugfisher. 

Bowlder Thuuder-Beiug (E-f-F). Cloud Horse. 

Iron Whirlwind. Irou Horse. 

Iron Beaver. Lightning Horse. 

Small-bird Beaver. Earth (or Ground) Horse. 

Iron Owl. Wind Horse. 

Cloud Hail. Fire Horse. 

Iron Cloud. Black-bird Horse. 

Fire Cloud. Small-bird Man (or, Indian; 4th Etla.. 

Iron Wind. PI. Liv, No. 28; bird's head and wings 

Stone Ghost. on a man's body). 

Cloud Black-bear. Dog Rattlesnake. 

There are several '^Wasicun" names: Cloud Wasic'im, Fire Wasi- 
cim. Night Wasicim, and Iron Wasit'un. The last one has for its picto- 
graph a man with a hat, i. e., a white man, and can hardly have any 
mystic significance. The name, Wasicun, originally meant '' guardian 
spirit," but it is now applied to white people (§ 122). In the absence of 
the pictographs, we can not tell whether Cloud Wasicun, Fire Wasi- 
cun, and Night Wasicun refer to guardian spirits (in which case they 
are mystic names connected with cults) or to white men. 

Most of the above names are taken from the Dakota census lists. 
The j^oiwere lists furnish only two composite names of this character: 
Iron Hawk Female, and Pigeon Thunder-being. The Kansa list has 
Moon Hawk and Moon Hawk Female, the latter name, which is found 
in the Omaha and Ponka list, suggesting the Egyptian figure of a 
woman's body with a hawk's head, surmounted by a crescent moon. 
Horse Eagle appears to be a sort of Pegasus. Buflalo-bull Eagle may 
refer to the myth of the Orphan and the Buftalo- woman, in which we 
learn that the Buffalo people ascended through the air to the upper 
world.' 

PEESONAL NAMES FROM HORNED BEINGS. 

§ 394. The Dakota lists have several names of horned beings, as fol- 
lows : Horned Grizzly-bear, Horned Horse (4th Eth., PI. liv, No. 29, and 
PI. Lxxi, No. 193), Horned Dog, Horned Eagle, Gray Horned Thunder 
Being, Horned Deer, Black Horned Boy, and Snake Horn. No attempt 
to explain these names has been made. Among the Winnebago, the 
following names refer to water monsters, and belong to the Waktceqi 
or Water-monster gens: Horn on one side (equivalent to the Dakota, 
He-sar)ni6a), Horns on both sides. Two Horns, Four Horns, iind Five 
Horns. 

The Winnebago list has the name Four Women (in one), with which 
compare what has been said about the Double- Woman (§ 251). 

I Contr. X. A. Etlm., Vol. vi. pp. 142, 146. 



542 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

::^i3rEs deeiyed feo>i seyeeal HOMOGE^'Eors objects ok beings. 

All esaminatioQ of the persoual name lists reveals such names as 
First or Que Grizzly-bear, Two Grizzly-bears, Three Grizzly-bears, 
Four Grizzly-bears, Many Grizzly-bears ; One Path, Two Paths, Four 
Paths Female, Many Paths: One Cloud, Two Clouds, Three Clouds, 
Many Clouds: One Crow, Two Crows, Three Crows, Four Crows, Many 
Crows, The author suspects that these names and many others of a 
similar character are symbolic of the four quarters and of the upper 
and lower worlds, and that the Indian who was named after the larger 
number of mystic objects enjoyed the protection of more spirits than 
tlid he whose name referred to the smaller number. This accords with 
the Cherokee notion described by Mr. Mooney in his article on the 
Cherokee theory and practice of medicine: ' The shaman is represented 
as calling tirst on the Eed Hawk from the east, then on the Blue Hawk 
in the north, the two hawks accomplishing more by working together. 
Still more is eftected when the Black Hawk from the west joins them, 
and a complete victory is won when the White Hawk from the south 
joins the others. 

Compare with this the Osage opinion that the man who could show 
seven sticks (representing seven brave or generous deeds) was of more 
mportance than he who could show only six sticks. 

RETUEN OF THE SPIRIT TO THE EPONYZVI. 

§ 395. In two of the buftalo gentes of the Omaha (the luke-sabeaud 
Hauga) there is a belief that the spirits of deceased members of those 
gentes return to the buffaloes. Does the abode of the disembodied 
spirit differ in the gentes according to the natuie of the eponymic 
ancestor ? For instance, is there a belief among the Elk people that 
their spirits at death return to the ancestral Elk ? 

FUNCTIONS OF CfENTES AND SUBGENTES. 

§ 396. In several tribes there seems to have been a division of labor 
among the gentes and subgentes, that is, each social division of the 
tribe had its special rehgious duties. 

In the Omaha tribe we find the following: the Elk gens regulated 
war: it kept the war tent, war pipes, and the bag containing poisons: 
it invoked the Thunder-being, who was supposed to be the god of war, 
and it sent out the scouts. The Inke-sabe and Hanga gentes were the 
leading peace gentes: they regulated the buffalo hunt and the cultiva- 
tion of the soil. The Hauga gens had the control of the peace pipes, 
and a memberof that gens lighted the pipes on all ceremonial occasions 
except at the time of the anointing of the sacred pole.- The Inke-sabe 
gens kept the peace pipes, and a member of that gens acted as crier on 



'Jour. Am. Folk-lore. Vol. m. Xo. viii, pp. 49. 50. 
*Oin. Soc, in 3d An. Rept. Bur. Ethn.. pp. 222.223. 



r^.ftso Fcxcncwrs of GzyjL- j^^^u cLc.^t..>it..-. 543 

many rx;ca«ions. the other cr ' . ' * • — 

gens. An Ictasanda man i. 

Hafiga man filled them when the sacreri poie was anointed. The x^da- 

it'ajl keeper of a •♦acred pipe really kept instead th ' ' 

I^ouch and briffalo aknlL The Inke sab? and j^f-.-da-it-.: 

the two pifiesaronndthe oirele of chiefs. The Black bear people aided 

the Elk pe*^>ple in tli- -.-^T,:. ,.f r ,^ Thunder-being - - spring of 

the year. 

§ 397, The following d;-.\.^ion .>i Iafx>r existed in the i^oii^a tribe: The 
Waaabe-hit-aji and Hi.sada gentes led in the worship of the Thunder- 
being. The ^ixida and yikada.>na gentes led in war. The Wacabe, 
Maka". and >'uqe. all buffalo gentes, regulated the buffalo hunt. The 
Wajaje (Reptile people) with whom used to be the ^'ecta or Owl people, 
api>ear to have been servants of the subaquatic powers. 

§ 398. In the Kansa tribe we find that the Earth Lodge and Elk 
gentes consecrated the mystic fireplaces whenever a new village was 
established: that the Earth Lodge people consecrated the com, and 
regulated the buffalo hunt as well as farming; that the Elk people 
directed the attack on the buffalo herd ; that the Ghost people announce*! 
all deaths: that the two Hanga gentes led in war and in mourning for 
the dead: that the Tciju wactage was a peace-making gens ; that a mem- 
ber of the Deer gens was the crier for the tribe; that the member of the 
Ln or Thunder-being gens could not take part in the waqpele gaxe 
(?28j and must remain in the rear of the other warriors on such an 
occasion ; and that the Wind people, who had to pitch their tents in 
the rear of the other gentes had a ceremony which they performed 
whenever there was a blizzard (§ 55). 

§ 399. In the author s account of Osage war customs he relates the 
following incidents : On the first day of preparation for the warpath 
the Black bear people bring willows and kindle a fire outside the war 
tent. On the same day some other Han5[a people deposit branches of 
dried willow in some place out of sight of the war tent, and the C^aqe 
men (part of the Buffalo-bull gens) bring in those branches. On the 
next day men of the Xight gens (a sort of Black bear people) set the wil- 
low branches on fire, and they and the Elder Osage people say prayers. 
After this ttiere is a struggle to secure pieces of the charcoal. An Elk 
man and a Ka"se man act as criers. On the third day an Osage man 
brings in the sacred bag for the HaQ^a or Waoaoe mourner (the gens 
of each man is not specified, but both men belong to the right or war 
side of the tribe i. and a Sinjsait^e man brings in a like bag for the 
moiuuer belonging to the Tsiou or peace side of the tribe. On the 
fourth day a woman of a Buffalo gens on the right or Hau^a side of the 
tribe lays down two strips of buff'alo hide so that the warriors may take 
the first step on the warpath. After the warriors start, a <^u«[e man 
is taken ahead of them in order to perform some ceremony which has 
not been recorded. 



544 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 

On tlie return of tlie war party the warriors are met outside of the 
village by an old man of the Ka"se or Wind gens. He performs certain 
ceremonies as he walks around the party (beginning at the north and 
ending at the east), and then he tells them whether they can enter the 
village. Tiie clothnigof the retirrning warriors becomes the property 
of tlie old Ka"se man and his attendant. 

The Ka^se gens of the Osage tribe is called the Idats'e, because it 
devolves on a member of that gens to fill the peace pipes. The 
corresponding gens of the Ka"ze tribe is called Ibatc'e or Haiiga-jinga. 

THE "MESSIAH CRAZE." 

§ 400. Since the present article was begun there has arisen the 
so-called "Messiah craze" among the Dakota and other tribes of 
Indians. The author does not feel competent to describe this new form 
of Indian religion, but he suspects that some features of it are either 
willful or accidental perversions of the teachings of the missionaries. 



§ 401. In presenting this study of Siouan cults to the scientific world 
the author has a painful sense of its incompleteness, but he hopes that 
the facts here fragmentarily collated may prove helpful to future 
investigators. The inferences, provisional assumptions, and suggestive 
queries in this chapter are not published as final results. Even should 
any of them prove to be erroneous the author's labor will not be in 
vain, for through the correction of his mistakes additional information 
will be collected, tending to the attainment of the truth, which should 
be the aim of all mankind. 



INIJEX. 



Page. 

Absaroka, Reference to bclicl's of 505 

Air, Beliefs respecting 522 

Alabama, Exiilorations ill xxix 

Alexander, James, Acknowledgiuent.sto 363,423 

— cited on .syniliolic colors 533 

Algoni^UIAN languages, Bililiography of. xxxiv 

Alphabet, .Siouan 363 

Altar used among the Sia 104 

Amulets, E.skimo 201 

— of northern Indians 275 

— , Use of 515 

Amusements, Eskimo 254 

— of northern Indians 320 

Ancestor worslii)). Absence of 371 

, Terras indicative of 368 

Animal life of the Uiigava district 174 

— myths 31,146.425 

— societies, Organization of 69 

Animals taboo among Iowa Indians 426 

the Omaha 412 

Animism among northern Indians 273 

Siouau peojiles 431, 514 

— , Discussion of " xlv, 520 

A"PA"SKA, Mystery decoration of 398 

Antelope, Myths concerning 52, 64 

Anthropomorphism, Primitive .520 

Ant, Myths concerning 104 

— societies, Organization of 69 

Anungite, Description of 473 

Apache, Symbolic colors of ,532 

Apotheosis, Belief in 425 

A PPARITIONS, 497 

Archery. Indian 313 

Arickaka belief Reference to 403 

— ceremonial 437 

Arizona, Explorations in xx vii 

Aemstro.vg, W. H., cited on Hawaiian 

phonetics 364 

Arrow games among tlie Sia 60 

— , Eskimo 246 

— , Nenenot 312 

— , Use of, in ceremonial 122 

Arts, Ceramic, among the Sia 11 

— , Eskimo 259 

— , Nenenot 297 

— , Structural, among the Sia 23 

Ashes, Use of, in ceremonial 134 

Ashley, E., cited on Indian beliefs 444 

ASSINIBOIN, Beliefs among 431, 436,485,492 

— , Fetichism, — 498 

AtHAPASC.\n inylhs, Tieference to .391, 484 

Athletics, Indian 321 



Page. 

Atonement. Absence of belief in 521 

Auroras, Eskimo myths concerning 266 

— of the Ungava district 173 

AUTiioiUTlEs (m Siouan cults 361 

Awls, Ncntuiot 318 

Ax. Cercinoni.il 454 

Aztec. Symbolic colors among 532 

Badokr. Myths concerning 37.152 

Ball used in primitive football 257 

Banuelier. a. F., quoted on Sia history 11 

Barter by the Sia 12 

Baskets, Birch bark among the Xenenot - 301 

Baths, Use of 300 

Bear, Myths concerning 39, 47. 477 

— of the Ungava district 174 

Bear butte, Myths concerning 449 

Beaver, Chase of the 316 

— , Myths concerning 339, 439 

Bee, 54 

Beliefs, Character of primitive xliv, 67 

— ciuiceriiing the butfalo 475 

— , Eskimo 196 

— , Mortuary 143, 192 

— not found among Siouan peoples 371 

— of 365, 431 

Bent Horn, Exhibition of shamanism by. 417 

Beruaches 467. 516 

— , Beliefs concerning 378 

Big Elk,.Iohn, acknowledgement to 362 

— (| noted on fetiches 414 

Bio Grizzlev Beak cited (ui Jugglery . . . 417 

Bio Turtle, Myth of 369 

Birch-bark canoes, Nenenot 304 

— , Use of for baskets 301 

Bird societies. Organization of 70 

Birds carved in ivory by the Eskimo 260 

— , Myths concerning 153 

— of the Ungava district 175 

Blackbird, Customs concerning 410 

Boas, Franz, Work by, on the Eskimo.. xxiv 

Boats, Eskimo 235 

BO(;lES, Indian 473 

Bo(i8, Myths concerning 481 

Boils, 496 

Boots, Eskimo 179. 205, 217 

BOURKE, John G.. Acknowledgement to. 455 

— cited on phallic worship 457 

sun dance 450, 4.59 

— symbolic colors 532 

— (juoted on sun dance 464 

545 



11 KTU 



-35 



546 



INDKX. 



Page. 

J{<iw rases, Eskimo 247 

— , Eskimo 246 

-, NciKmot 312 

B(»WLlNfi among tlio Eskimo 257 

BuAXr, Mytlis concerninj; 327 

15HI.NTON Daniel G., cited on Hey oka 

gods 4t)0 

Bruyiek, John, cited on ghost belief 489 

Sioiian mytlis 480 

— , Kef ereiice to work of 362 

r.t'FK.vi.o, Beliefs concerning 37, 303, 403, 

47r),,'-,0r., 510, 518 

— dance. Description of 513 

— skull, I'se of, in ceremonial 545 

— taboo among tlie Omaha 411 

Buii.ni.NO among tlio Sia 23 

BuKiAL among northern Indians 271 

the Sia 144 

— , Customs connected with 486 

BlSHOTlEK, tiEOHGE, cited on ghost 

lodge 487 

— Indian beliefs 496 

— - customs 493 

— quoted on buffalo myths 476 

lleyoka women 471 

Indian beliefs 441,447,467 

Mandan song 464 

— sun dance 453 

— worship 450 

— worship of Inyan 448 

— , licfereuce to work of 363 

Bykd, William, Acknowledgement to .. 501 

— quoted on Indian beliefs 519 

Calendar, Eskimo 202 

California, Explorations in xxix 

Canada, xli 

— , Kosoarchos in xxx 

Cannibalism among the Eskimo 187 

Canoes, Kenenot 304 

Canotidan, Description of 473 

Card games among the Eskimo 255 

Cardinal points, Association of, with 

colors 397 

, Beliefs concerning 377, 524 

, Societies of the 70 

, Supplication to 124 

Carvino, Eskimo 260 

Casa (iRANDE, lluin of xxvii 

Catlin, George, cited on Indian beliefs. 506 

— quoted on Indian customs 513 

— , Reference to work of 501 , 502 

CEREMf)NIAL connected with infancy 482 

— puberty 208 

— in the scalp dance 526 

— of cult societies 75 

Dahpike 503 

ghost lodge 487 

— , Sionan 373, 436, 440 

Ceremony connected with relation of 

myths 369 

Chase, Methods of the 277,316 

— , Usages connected with the 274 

Checkers among northern Indians 323 



Page. 

Cherokees, Reference io customs of 369 

— , Study of works of xxvi 

— , Symbolic colors of 532 

Childbirth among northern Indians 271 

— , Beliefs concerning 511, 516 

— , Ceremonials connected with 132 

Childhood, Customs relating to 190, 482 

Children, CoJidition of, among northern 

Indians 269 

— , Eskimo myths concerning 265 

— , Naming of 190 

Clans, Sia 19 

Clark, May S., Acknowledgment to . . . 78 

Clarke, F.W., Analysis of pigment by 142 

Climate of the Ungava district 172 

Clothing of northern Indians 208, 281 

Cloud myths 37 

Coins, Use of, among the Eskimo 212 

Collins, Mary C, quoted on symbolism. 531 

Colors, Association of, with cardinal 

points 397 

— in personal names 533 

Siouan symbolism 523, 527 

— , Significance of, in games 60 

Combs, Nenenot 319 

Conception, Beliefs concerning immacu- 
late 59 

Conjuring among northern Indians 193, 274 

Constellations, Beliefs concerning 517 

Cooking among northern Indians 233, 280 

■Corn, Customs concerning 410 

— , Myths — 40,76,403 

Cosmogony, Dakota 438 

— , Sia 26, 143 

Costume, Eskimo 208 

— in ceremonial 106, 122, 133 

— , Nenenot 289 

— , Sia 22 

Cougar, Myths concerning :t9, 154 



— , Society of the 

Courtship among the Eskimo . . . 

Coy'OTE, Myths concerning 

Cramped Hand cited on beliefs . 
— , Exhibition of shamanism by. 



118 
188 
147 
366 
417 

Creation myths 32, 338, 438, 506. 51 3, 519 

Cree Indians, Northern relatives of 267 

Crow Indians, Beliefs of 436, 505, 518 

Cult, Definition of 361 

— societies among the Sia 69 

Cults, A studj^ of Siouan 361 

— , Discussion xliii 

Cup-AND-BALL among Northern Indians . 255, 323 

Curling among the Eskimo 257 

Curtin, Jeremiah, Work of xxix, xxxiii 

CusHLNG, Frank Hamilton, cited on Zuni 

customs 369 

— , Reference to work of xxvii 

Customs, Indian domestic 119, 178, 183, 185, 

205, 275. 299 

— , Mortuary 143, 191 

Cegiha Indians, Researches concerning . xxsii 



Dabchick, Myths concerning . 
Dahpike, Description of the . . 



496 
503 



INDEX. 



547 



Page. 

Daimonism, Sionan 433, 515 

Dakota, Belief's <it t hi' 432 

— cults, Description of 431 

Dakota, Explorations in xliii 

Dakotan languages. Work on xxxi 

Dance, Ceremonial x x viii, 378, 393 

440, 450, 463, 503, 513, 520 
Dancing lodge, Sionan 458 

— societies, — 428 

Davis, "W. W. H., quoted on liistoiy of the 

Sia 10 

Dawn, Beliefs concerning 468 

Day, 467 

Dead, Disposal of the 518 

Death, Beliefs conc(>rning 374, 421, 512. 518 

— , Customs relating to 485 

Decoration among Sionan peoi)le8 397 

Deer hunting, Kskimo 249 

— , Myths concerning 37, 64, 153, 201, 328 

— tahno 412 

— women, Mythic 480 

Deerskin, Useof 284.299 

Definitions of terms 36 , 365 

Deities, Siouan 372,445, 506,521 

Deluge, Myth concerning the 57 

Demi-gods, Absence of belief in 371 

Dice, Primitive game of 61, 178 

Differentiation of labor among Indians 271. 542 

Diseases of the Eskimo 187 

District of Columbia, Field work in xxvi 

Divinities, Siouan 50(i, 513 

Divorce, Flskimo 189 

Doctress, Sia 133 

Dog whip, Eskimo 244 

— , Habits of the— 225, 245 

-, Use of 241,309 

Dolls, Eskimo 197. 258 

Dominoes, Primitive game of 257 

Donaldson, Thomas, lleference to work 

of 501 

DoRSEY, J. Owen, A study of Sioiuiu cults. 361 

— , Review of report by xliii 

— , Work of xxiv, xxxi 

Double woman. Mythic 480 

Dreams, Beliefs concerning. . 200, 395, 500, 510. 510 
— . lurtuence of, among northern Indians. 272 
Dried Buffalo Skull, My.stery decora- 
tion of :«>6 

Drum, Neuenot 322, 324 

Dueling amimg northern Indians 271 

DuLHUT, Daniel Grey.selon, cited on 

Indian beliefs 438 

Dwarfs, Siouan mythic 481 

Dwellings, Indian 223, 298 

Eagle, Myths concerning 47, 104, 510 

Earth, Beliefs — 386, 424, 438, 522 

— formations. Symbolic 427 

— powers. Description of 534 

Eells, Mykon, Ueferenco to work of 520 

Effigies, Us(^ of, among the Eskimo 260 

Elements, Cult s of the 522 

Elk taboo among the Omaha 412 

Elves, Siouau 481 



Page. 
Emetics taken before ceremonials, Pur- 
pose of g7 

Eponym, Beliefs respecting the 542 

Errors, Couunon.concerning the Eskimo. xlii 

Eskimo, Customs of 1G8 

— Iiiytbs 193,195 

175 
xli 
174 
1C7 
xxxvii 
xxxvii 



— of the Ungava district 

— , Report on 

— , Whale fishing by 

Ethnology of t\w. Ungava district 

ExposrnoN, New Orleans, Exhibition at 
— , Paris, — — . . 



Faith cure. Primitive 

Fastin(; among Siouan tribes 390,436, 

FEA.ST of the Heyoka 

Fe.sti VALS, Ncneiiot 

Fetiches, Use of, in ceremonials .. 40,95,120, 

Feticliism ainong northern Indians 201, 

— , Siouan 412,426,443,498,510, 

Fewki;s, J. ^\■AI.TER, cited on symbolic 

colors 

Fire, Ceremonial connected with 

— chief. Decoration of 

—, Myths concerning 50.72, 

— powers in Siouan concepts 

— , Worshi]) of 

Fire society. Organization of 

Fireplace, ( ,'onsecration of 

Fish, Use of, for food 

Fish-hooks, Nenenot 

Fishing among the Eskimo 

Fletcher, Alice C, cited on beliefs. 414, 500. 

ceremonials 385, 

glu)st lodge 

sun dance 457, 462, 

tlie Umane 

— quoted on berdacbes 

ceremon ials 

— Indian beliefs 434, 476, 

kinship terms 

rites of puberty 

sun dance 450, 

symbolism 427, 

Unktebi 

— , Reference to work of 

Floats, Fishing, Eskimo 

Flute, Siouan 

Folklore, Indian 260, 327. 

Food, — 140, 232, 

— , Lore concerning 

— used in ceremonial 

Football among the Eskimo 

Fort ( "iiimo, Ethiudogy of 

Fort George, High tides at 

Foster, Tho.mas, cited on Indian beliefs. 

Fox, Eskimo myths concerning 

Fremont, Samuel, Acknowledgement to 

— cited on fetiches 

Indian beliefs 374. 375. 

Frog, Myths cont^rning 

Furniture, Eskimo 

Furs, Eskimo classification of 

— takiui b\ northern Indians I 



68 
502 
469 
322 
135 



532 
381 
402 
522 
535 
514 
70 
380 
280 
320 
204 
.530 
391 
487 
460 
451 
379 
446 
497 
368 
483 
453 
529 
439 
363 
248 
455 
511 
279 
517 
104 
255 
167 
170 



264 
362 
415 
380 
334 
228 
218 
181 



548 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Gadfly infesting the reindeer 295 

G AHIGE, Acknowleilgement to 362 

— cited 01) primitive beliefs 377, 420, 446 

Gambling among tlie Eskimo 178 

Games, Primitive 60, 178, 255, 323 

Gatschet, Albert S., cited on symbolic 

colors 532 

— , Researches by xxxii 

GEORGE RIVER, Description of 169 

Georgia, Explorations in xx v 

Genesis among northern Indians 261, 336 

Gentes, Description of - 534, 536, 542 

Gesture, U.se of, among northern In- 
dians 183 

Ghost belief, Siouan 421. 474. 484, 490, ,^)12, 518 

— dance among the Omaha 393, 544 

— lodge, Description of 4S7 

— stories, Teton 489 

Giant society, Ceremonial of 91 

— , Songs of 126 

Giants, Beliefs concerning 508 

Gill, De Lancey W., Work of xxxviii 

Gh'ttony, (lod of 471 

Goats, Myths concerning 497 

(50D. Siouan idea of xl v, 521 

Goggles, Eskimo 222 

Gopher, Myths concerning 496 

Grave, Eskimo 1 92 

Great Spirit. Absence of belief in. xlvi 365,423. 

431,501. .-,21 

— among the Eskimo 194 

Grebe, Myths concerning lOii 

Green corn dance, Siouan 429 

Grubs in reindeer skins 29.' 

GuiLhEMOTS, Mytliic origin of 26'J 

Gulls, 2n:! 

Hamilton, "William, cited on Indian Ix-- 

liefs 419. 423. 524 

Hanmdepi, Practice of 437 

Hard Walker, Mystery decoration of. . . 399 

Hare, Myths concerning the 147. 26:'.. 340 

Harness, Dog 243 

Harpoon used among northern Indians. 183.240 

Hawks, Mythic origin of 26:i 

Headdress, Xenenot : 2S6 

He.matite, Use of. among northern In- 
dians 298 

Henmepin, Louis, cited on Indian beliefs 438 

Henshaw, H. W., Researches by xxxi 

Herding among the Sia 25 

Hermaphroditism, Beliefs concerning.. . 379 

Hero worship, Traces of 371 

Hewitt, J. N. B., cited on Iroijuoiam be- 
liefs 366 

— , Work of XXX, XXXV 

Heyoka, Beliefs concerning 443, 468 

■" man. Story of the 469 

Hidatsa, Ceremonial among 437 

— , CMilts of the 501 

— myths, Reference to 391. ."ill 

HiLLERS, J. K., Pbotographn; work by., xxxviii 

UlNMAN. S D.. cited on stone gods 446 

History of the Sia 10 



Hoffman, W.J. , cited on symbolic colors 532 

— , Work of XX vi. xxxiii 

Hohnogk'a, Description .if 473 

Holmes, W. H., Researches by. xxiv, xxvi, x.'cxiv 
Ho-NA'-Ai-TE ceremonial over hunters . . . 120 

Horse, Beliefs concerning 479, 510 

— , Use of, by the Sia 25 

— in ceremonial 462. 487. 504 

Hospitality of the Sia 12. 1 13 

Household articles. Northern 228, 300 

Houses, Myths concerning 58 

— of the Ungava district 167 

Hovey, H. C, quoted on worship of In 

yan 448 

— , Reference to work of 363 

Hudson Bay Company, Work of, in the 

Ungava district 167 

Hudson Bay Territory, Indians of xli, 167,267 

Human phenomena. Definition of 365 

Hunting among northern Indians 203, 240. 

249, 276. 279, 316 
—, Ceremonial connected witli 120 

— implements 238, 246 

HlTE(?A. Mystery decoration of 396 

I^a'e^'E, Description of 392 

Ice pick. Primitive 319 

— scoop, — 318 

Ictasanda custom. Description of 383 

iH.iNKTONWANNA. Beliefs among 436 

Ikto, Description of 471 

iMMORT-iVLlTY, Primitive belief in 419, 430. 

484. 512. 518. 521 

Implements of northern Indians 252,317 

Inda(JTNGA, Descri])tion of 386 

Indiana. Explorations in xxv 

Industries of Sia 22 

Inf.^ncy, Ceremonials connected with ... 140,482 
Inkesabe decoration. Description of ... . 408 

INNUIT, Legendary origin of 261 

— of the Ungava district 175 

Institutions, Siouan 411 

Intestines, Use of, fir clothing 220 

Intoxicants, Absence of, among the Xe- 
nenot 804 

Invocation of the trap 387 

Invulnerability, Indian belief in 495 

Inyan, Belief in tlie 447 

Iowa, Beliefs among 439 

— , Explorations in xxv 

Iroquois, Beliefs of the xxx, 366 

Irrigation by the Sia 11 

Islands, Mythic origin of 264 

Ivory car\-ing among the Eskimo 260 

Iya, Description of 471 

James, Edwin, Acknowledgment to 501 

— cited on Indian lieliefs 372 

— quoted on Indian beliefs 509, 516 

Jay, Beliefs concerning the 273 

Jemez Indians, Researches concern in i; .. xxx 
Jugglery among Siouan tribes 416. 499, 512 



INDEX. 



649 



I'ag.-. 

Kansa lieliefs in future life 421 

— cults, l)escripti(>ii of :?71,4ir) 

— , llescarclies couceruing xxxii 

KiNosBOHouoH, Lord, cited on svinliolif 

colors 532 

Kinship terms, Signilicaiice of . . 368 

Klamath Indians, Publications con<'ern- 

ing xxxii 

Knife ceremonial 545 

Knife society. Ceremonial of 101 

-, Organization of 69 

— , Songs of 128 

Knives of northern Indians 208, 252, 317 

KoKsoAfiM vi-T, Description of 184 

KoKSoAK river, Description of 170 

— , Ethnology of Ifi7 

KWAPA bi'liefs, Hefircnce to 393 

— , Researches concerning xxxii 



Labor, Division of 271, 542 

Labrador, Ethnology of 167 

— , Myths from 264 

Ladles, Neneuot 302 

La FlI:che, Francis, Acknowledgment 

to 362 

— cited on beliefs 373 

berdaches 378 

fetichisni 413 

— (jiioted on Indian beliefs 420, 524 

shamanism 393 

La FLfecHE, Joseph, Acknowledgment 

to 362 

— cited on Indian beliefs 371 , 386, 526 

shamanism 392 

Siouau customs 390 

LaFleche, Suesette, cited on fetiches. 416 

Lamps, Eskimo 229 

Lang, Andrew, quoted on primitive be- 
liefs 368 

LAN<irAr:E, Modification of the Eskimo. . 176 

Larch river, Description of 171 

Law, Common, among the Eskimo 186 

Leaf river. Description of 171 

Legends of northern Indians 260. 327 

— , Siouan 430 

Leggings, Nenenot 283, 291 

Lewis, Merriwether, cited on Indian 

customs 505 

_ -_ Shoahoni ceremonials 375 

— quoted on Indian beliefs 481, 508 

mythic dwarfs 481 

— , Reference to work of 502 

Lhct, Daniel Grey.~elon, Sieur dc, cit- 
ed on Indian beliefs 438 

Lice. Eskimo myths concerning 263 

License, Poetic, among the Sia 123 

Life, Primitive belief in future 419, 430, 

484.512,518,521 

Light, Mythic origin of 29 

Lightning myths 37, 52, 123, 127, 366, 420, 517 

— , Symbolism connected with 527 

Lingam, Belief in the t47 

Little Soldier, Mvsterv decoration of. 395 



Page. 
Little Whale river Indians, Descrip- 
tion of 182 

Lloyd, H. Evans, Reference to work of. . 501 
Lodge, Ceremonies aiul beliefs respect- 
ing 274,458,487 

Longevity among northern Indians 190, 270 

Long, Stephen IL, citeil on beliefs 448 

— quoted on Omaha customs 375 

rites of jiubertj' 483 

— , Reference to work of 363, 5C3 

Loon, Eskimo myths concerning 262 

LvND, J. "\V., cited on Indian beliefs..375, 436, 527 

— quoted on ghost belief 484, 489 

Hey(diagod8 469 

Ikto 472 

Indian beliefs 431, 445, 473. 493 

ceremonials 437 

sun dance 450 

— , Reference to work of 363 

Lynx, Myths concerning 148 

— , Use of for food 279 

Magic, Primitive 197,509 

Mallery, Garrick. cited on primitive 

beliefs xlvi 

symbolic colors 532 

— , Researches by xxxi 

M am.mals of the Fngava district 174 

Mandan, Ceremonial among 437 

-,('ultsof the 501 

— dance, Description of 463 

Manitoba, Explorations in xxv 

Marriage among northern Indians. . 188, 199, 270 

the Sia 19 

Marrow, Extraction of 278 

]\[arten. Myths concerning 338 

Masks, Sia 117 

Mato TlPl, Beliefs concerning 448 

Matthews, Washington, Acknowledg- 
ment to 501 

— cited on Indian beliefs 391, 403 

ceremonials 505 

Navajo beliefs 369 

symbolic colors 532 

— quoted on Indian beliefs 501, 509, 514, 518 

, Siouan fetiches 515 

Maximilian( Alexander PniLipp), Prince 

zuWlED, cited on Indian beliefs.. 440,443,515 

— quoted on 506, 509 

ceremonials 504 

— , Reference to work of 501 

McLean, John, cited on Ilud.sou Bayter- 

ritor J' 168 

Medicine lodge of northern Indians 274 

— . Primitive . . xxviii. 269, 274. 325, 417, 427, 4.54. 495 

— rock of the Mandan 508 

-, Thaumaturgic 75, 97, 104, 125, 134, 194 

Mementoes among northern Indians 274 

Messiah craze, Reference to the 544 

Metamorphoses, Indian bcli(ff in 493 

Metempsychosis, ■— 484 

Michigan, Explorations in xxvi 

Middleton, J. D., Explorations by xxvi 

— , Resignation of xxvi 



550 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Migration, Eskimo 203 

— myths of the Sia 41 

Miller, George, Acknowledgment to... 362 

— cited on beliefs 372, 377 

fetichism 413 

— .Information derived from xxxii 

— , Mysterj' decoration used by 394 

— quoted on Ictasanda custom 383 

Omaha invocations 387 

Sionan decorations 398, 401 

star beliefs 379 

MiNDELEFF, COSMOS, Work by xxxvi 

MiNDELEFF, VICTOR, xxvii, XXX vi 

MiNiWATU, Beliefs concerning 440 

Minnesota, Field work in... xxvi 

MiNNETAEEE, Beliefs among 436 

Mittens of northern Indians 219, 284, 285 

Moccasins, Nenenot 284 

Modeling, Report on xxxvi 

Mole, Myths concerning 52 

Monster myths 42 

MoNTAGNAis of the Ungava district 181 

Moon, Beliefs concerning. 35, 265, 378, 449, 467, 513 
Mooney, James, cited on Indian customs. 369, .542 

— - — symbolic colors .532 

—, Researches by xxvi, xxvii, sxxiii 

Mortuary customs and beliefs. . 143, 178, 191, 271 

Mosquitoes, Mythic origin of 264 

Mound explorations xxv 

Mouse, Beliefs concerning 273 

Murdoch, John, editor of paper on Eth- 
nology of the Ungava district 167 

— , Reference to work of 238 

Music among northern Indians 322 

Muskhooean languages. Bibliography of. xxxiv 

Muskrat, Myths concerning 338 

Mystery dance, Description of 440 

— decoration. Use of 394 

— , Definition of 365 

— , Indian belief in 445, 493, 508 

— tree. Description of the 453 

Myth, Special definition of 368 

Mythology, Primitive xlv, 26, 

116,261,327,365,431 

Myths concerning the buffalo 476 

— , Creation 430, 513, 519 

— of the Eskimo 195 

Maudans 506 

Sia 9,146 



Names, Children's, among the Sia 

— , Colors in personal 

— , Composite 

— , Eskimo 

— , Mystical 439, 522, 

— , Significance of personal 

— , Topographic, among the Eskimo 

>; ASKOPIE Indians, Description of 

Navajo beliefs. Reference to 

— , S;yTiibolic colors of 

Navigation, E.skimo 

Nebraska, Explorations in 

Needle, Nenenot 

Nenknot Indians, Description of 



141 
533 
539 
200 

537, 541 
368 
202 

183, 267 
369 
532 
236 
xliii 
310 

183, 267 



Page. 

New Mexico, Explorations in xxxix 

— , Sia Indians of 9 

New York, Field work in xxx 

Night, Beliefs concerning 467 

NiKiE decorations, Description of 407 

— names among the Iowa and Otoe 439 

Nomenclature, Peculiarities of Indian . . xxix 
North Carollna, Explorations in . . xxvi, xxvii 

North Dakota. — — xxv 

NuDA°AXA, Acknowledgment to 362 

Numbers, Mystic 513 

Numerals, Use of, among the Eskimo. .. 256 

Ohio, Explorations in xxvi 

Oil, Consumption of, among the Eskimo. 233 

Ojibwa, Ceremonials of xxvii 

— , Symbolic colors of 532 

Okipa, Description of the 502 

Omaha beliefs as to future life 419 

— cults. Description of 371 

— customs, , 374 

— . Researches concerning xxxi 

— terms. Definition of 367 

— tribal fetiches 414 

Omens, Indian belief in 500 

Onondaga Indians, Researches concern- 
ing xxx 

Oeacles, Belief in 510, 516 

Ordeals, Customs connected with 414,499 

Oregon, Explorations in xxxii 

Obnamentation of clothing, Nenenot 283 

Osage cults. Description of 371, 376 

— tribal fetiches 414 

Otoe, Beliefs among 439 

Otter, Myths concerning 330 

Owls, Beliefs concerning 273. 500, 510 

Paci°-na° paji, Acknowledgment to 362 

Paddles, Nenenot 306 

Paint sticks, — 297 

—used among northern Indians 296 

— , Use of, in worship 438 

Painting, Post mortem 144 

— . Sand, among the Sia 77, 102 

Palaihnihan language, Work on xxix 

Parkman, Francis, cited on Indian beliefs 443 

Paternity, Indefinite, among Indians . . . 271 

Peace, Sjmbolism connected with 523 

Peck, E.J. , Influence of, on Indians 182 

Peet, Stephen D., quoted on Indian be- 
liefs 520 

Penates, Siouan 475 

Pestles used among northern Indians . . 280. 302 

Phallic worship, Siouan 456 

Phonetics, - 363 

Photographs of Indians, Record of xxxviii 

Pictography, Work on xxxi 

Pigment, Indian, Analysis of 142 

Pilling, James C, Bibliogi-aphic work 

by xxiv, xxxiv 

Pipe, Beliefs concerning 511 

— , Ceremonial relating to. 373,377, 425, 435, 458, 487 

— dance. Reference to 4O6 



INDEX. 55]^ 



Pipe, Nenenot 

Planets, Myths ((inceniing 

I'lants, 

Polygamy ainong nortliern Indians 

Polytheism among Siouan tribes 

Pond, G. H., cited on beliefs 

— quoted 

Heyoka gods 

Indian Ixlicfs 

mvstury dance 

'— sun dance 

— , Reference to work of 

PONKA belief as to future life 

— cults, Description of _. 

— , Kesearches concerning 

— terms 

Population, Eskimo 

Portage, Mtthi.d of making, among 

northern Indians 

Pottery, Sia 

Poverty, — 

Powell, J. 'W., cited on Indian beliefs. . . 

— linguistic classification 

— Tusayan secret ceremonials 

— , Classification of languages by 

Powers recognized in Siouan concepts. . . 

Prayer among the Indians i:i(), 

Priesthood, Sia 

Prophecy, Aboriginal 404, 

PsYfHOTHEiSM, Absence of. . xlv, 365, 431, 

Ptarmiga.x, Hunting of 

Puberty', Ceremonial connected with 208, 
Publications 



Page. 

302 
514 
390 

188, 270 
502 
375 
446 
468 

432, 494 
440 
450 
363 
419 
371 
xxxl 
367 
176 

306 

12 

112 

.^^24 

10 

13 

XXX 

534 

373,435 

16 

424,444 

501,521 I 

204 

443. 483 

xxiv 



quoted on Indian 



Qu.VRTEES, The four 524, 537 

Queries concerning Indian beliefs 538 

Quer'-e.Xn-na society, Organization and 

ceremonial of 112,113 130 

Quivers, Eskimo 247 

QuoRATEAN language, Work on xxix 



Kabbit, Myths concerning 65, 334, 472 

Eain ceremonial among the Sia 76,91, 101,113 

— songs 123,126,128 

Painbow, Beliefs concerning . . 37, 56, 401, 508, 517 

EATTLEfiNAKE, Myths— 44, 156, 479 

Raven, Mythic origin of 262 

Reindeer hunting 276, 313 

— , Myths conceraing , 200 

— , Uses of 276 

Religion, Primitive xlv, 9, 193, 520 

, Persistence of 13, 179 

, Special definition of 368 

RE.SURRECTION, Abscnco of belief in 421 

Reverence for ancestors 371 

Reynolds, H. L., Researches by xxv, xxxv 

RiGGS, A. L., cited on rites of puberty ... 483 

symbolism 5;!1 

RiGGS, Stephen R., cited on Dakota terms 366 

Indian beliefs 375, 439, 444, 468, 480, 493 

stone gods 447 

— , Publication of dictionary by xxxi 

— quoted on Indian beliefs 432, 446, 528 





-lya 







- moon Worship 

- Siouan dance. 
penates 









-Re 


erence to work 
Mortuary 


of 


RiTK.S, 




-, Pu 


)erty 




-, Sia 


theurgistic 




Ruins 


Sia 





'ago. 

473 
471 
449 
443 
475 
363 
485 
483 
73 
10 



S.\CRED tent of 1 lie Omaha 413 

I Sacrifice, Primitive iqq 373 

380, 426, 435, 459, 502, 521 

Sand painting among the Sia 77 

San.ssouci, Louis, cited on beliefs 378 

Sapona, Beliefs of tlie 501 , 518 

Satan, Absence of belief (■(meerning 371 

Say, Thomas, quoted on benlaches 379 

Indian Deliefs 370, 421 431 

— , Reference to work of yg;; 

Scaffold burial among northernlndians . 272 

Scalp dance. Ceremonial connected with . .520 

ScAH ABEUS, Myths concerning 3- 

Scarification in ceremonial 437,460,405 

Scrapers, Nenenot 292 

j SEALSKiN,ITseof, among northernlndians. 221, 
I . 232, 292 

Sea PIGEONS, Mythic origin of 202 

Seasons, Recognition of, by Indians 203 

Sense development among tlie Eskimo . . 2()2 

Serpent, Beliefs concerning 157, sug 

— , Worship of Qn 

Sewing, Primitive 207, 282 

Sh.\dows, Myths concerning 514 

Shamanism, Siouan 392, 496, 513, 522 

— among northern Indians 194, 273 

— , Discussion of 417 520 

— , Persistence of 

Shamans, Position of 

tribes 

Shea, J. Gilmary, quoted on Indian be 
liefs 

— , Reference to work of 

Shells, Marine, used in Pueblo country. 

Shoes, Eskimo 

Shoshoni ceremonial. Reference to 

Shrew, Myths concerning 

Sia Indians, Researches concerning xxx, xxxix, 3 

Sign language, Work on 

.Sin. Indian concei)t3 concerning 

Sinew, Extraction of 

— , Use of, for sewing 

Siouan alphabet 

— cults. Study of , 

— , Definition of 

SissiTONWAN, Beliefs among 436 

Sitting Bull, Symbolic colors used by . . .531 

SkAtona, Mythic 8er])ont 157 

Skin clothing. Use of 209 



among Siouan 



179 

371 

431 
36,-! 
114 
217 
375 
39 



XXXI 

521 

251 

221 

363 

. xxxii, xliii,351 
361 



■ dressing among northern Indians 



. . 205,275, 
278, 292 



552 



INDEX. 



Skin tents, Eskimo 

!5Kl.NNiX(i, reculiar method of. 

Skunk, Myth comeming 

Sky, — 



226 

207 

150 

2(i6 

Sleds amoug northern ludians 240, 306 

Smet, P.J. DE, cited on Indian beliefs. 4;!9, 447, 477 
ordeals 499 

— quoted on fetichism 498 

Indian beliefs 443, 492 

ceremonials 437 

— . sun worship 449 

— , Reference to work of 363 

Smoking among northern Indians . . 234, 291, 302 
— , Beliefs concerning 51 1 

— in ceremonials 83, 93, 105, 373, 435, 458, 487 

Smoking deerskins 296 

Snakes, Myths concerning 479 

— , Use of, in ceremonials 87 

jugglery 419 

Snake society, Organization and cere- 
monial of 69, 78 

— , Songs of 123 

Snaring among northern Indians 279, 315 

Sneezing, Beliefs concerning 500 

Snow goggles, Eskimo 222 

— houses. Description of 223 

— shoe, Neuenot 308 

, Use of, among northern Indians . . . 311 

— shovel, Primitive 318 

SNUFF,Useof,aniongnorthern Indians. 234, 291, 302 

SoAPSTONE, Use of, for utensils 228 

Societies, Secret, among the Dakota 497 

Sod houses, Eskimo 228 

Songs, Sia 123, 125, 127 

— , Siouan 445, 480 

Sorcery, among Siouan tribes 416, 499, 511, 517 

Soul, Beliefs concerning the 517 

South Carolina, Explorations in xxv 

South Dakota, , xxv 

Spears, Primitive 238, 314 

Spider deity of the Sia 26 

— , Myths concerning 40, 68, 472, 479 

Spider society. Organization of 69 

Spirit, Absence of concept of .. . 365,371,423,431, 

501,521 

— , Reliefs in 194, 272,3.33, 342, 374, 475, 507, 542 

Spiritualism, Primitive 497 

Spoons, Nenonot 302, 306 

Spruce reeu, RfiFect of, on the Neuenot. . 304 

Squirrel, Myths concerning 48, 328 

Stars, Beliefs— 30,37,266,379,467,508,517 

Statement, Financial xlvii 

Stature of the Eskimo 177, 184 

Stevenson, James, Reference to work of 9,14,89 
Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, cited on sym- 
bolic colors 532 

— , Explorations by xxx 

— , Memoir by, on the Sia 3 

— , Review of reportby xxxix 

Stone god, P.olief in the 447 

— houses, Eskimo 228 

Stories of northern Indians 260,327 

Streams, Deification of 372 

Strength, Physical, of the Eskimo 268 

Stubbs, Stephen, Mystery decoration of. 405 



Page 
Subaquatic monsters. Belief in 386 

— powers. Worship of 424, 438 

Subterranean monsters. Belief in 386 

— powers. Worship of 424, 438 

Suicide among the Eskimo 186 

SUN,Beliefs concerning 29, 35,43, 71, 266,423,449, 513 

— dance, Siouan 378, 450 

— pole. Description of the 453, 457 

— symbol among the Sia 36 

— worship 376, 520 

SUPERHUM.\N phenomena, Definition of . . 365 

Superstition among northern Indians . . 179, 272 

Swallow, Myths concerning 58, 263 

Sweat houses, Nenenot 300 

Swimming board, Nenenot 320 

Symbolism, Siouan 427, 523 

Synony'MY. Work on xsxi 

Taboo among Iowa Indians 426 

the Omaha 411 

Sia 19 

Takuskanskan, Belief in 445 

Talisman, P^skimo 197 

Tanning, Primitive 294 

Targets, Nenenot 326 

Tattooing, Eskimo 207 

— , Siouan 486 

Teams, Dog 241 

Tennessee, Explorations in xxix 

Tents of northern Indians 226, 273, 298 

Teton, Customs of 493 

— , Researches concerning xxxi 

Tetonwan, Beliefs among 436 

Thaumaturg Y, Siouan 417 

Theism, — 502 

Theurgists, Sia 16, 7^ 

Thomas, Cyrus, Publications by xxxv 

— , Work by xxiv 

Thunder beings, Mythic 441 

— , Beliefs concerning 37, 381 , 385, 

424,441,508,517,523 

— shamans, Order of 395 

Throwingsticks, Eskimo 239 

Tides in the Ungava district 170 

Tobacco, Ceremonial relating to 425 

— , Myths — — 62 

— , Use of, among northern Indians. . .234, 291, 302 

. iu ceremonials 377 

Toboggans, Nenenot 307 

TopoGR.iPHT of the Ungava district 168 

Torture ceremonial 503, 505 

— in the sun dance 462, 465 

Totems, Usage connected with' 371 

Toys, Nenenot 326 

Trading among northern Indians 275 

Traditions, xoi were 430 

Trance among Indian devotees 392 

Transmigration, Indian belief in 421,493 

Transportation among northern Indians 304 

Trap, Invocation of the 387 

Trapping among northern Indians 204, 280 

Trees, Beliefs concerning 390, 482 

— , Ceremonials relating to 456 

Trophies among northern Indians 274 



INDEX. 



553 



Trophies, Use of. in ccrcnimiial 121 

TuNKAX, Belief in the 447 

Turkey, Mytlis concerning 36 

TrRXER, LucienM., Memoir Ijy, on etli- 

nology of the TTngava district IfiT 

— , Review of re[)ort by xli 

Twins, Myths concerning 182 

Two Crows, Aclinowledgnient to 3fi2 

— cited on Indian beliefs 371, liV.'), 382, 520 

shamanisni 392 

Sioiian ciistonis 390 

Tylor, K. ]?., cited on feticliism 412 

XolWERE cults, Description of 42! 

— traditions 43(i 

Umaxe, Significance of symbol 451 

Ungava bay, Description of 171 

--, Ethnology of 107 

Ungava district, 267 

Unktehi, Worship of the 43S 

Utensils, Cooking, among norlliern In 

dians 228. 300 

UuciTA, f Ceremonial of 4'<ii 

Valliere, Alphonsus, cited on Indian 

beliefs 394 

Vargas, Etsebio, quoted on the Sia 9 

— , IJeference to writings of xl 

Vegetation of the Ungava district 109, 173 

Venison, Preservation of 277 

VlAniLiTY among northern Indians 269 

Violin, Eskimo 259 

Visions, Beliefs concerning 395, 407 

Wakan, Description of concept of 494 

Wakanda, Definition of 300, 431 

— "Worship of 372 

Wakanta, The sun a 423 

Waki"ya", Siouan belief in 441 

Waxaoi, Description of 484 

Waxikige, Mystery decoration of 395 

War, Ceremonial connected with 390. 444, 493 

— , Symbolism 523 

WARiMTll, Deification of 372 

Warriors, Societv of the 72,121 



Page. 

Warts, Mytlis ((.ncerning 497 

Water, r.elicts coMc.'rning 380, 424 438, 522 

— peojjle. Mythic 538 

— powers, in Siouan concepts 537 

Weapons of northern Indians 24C, 312 

Weather, Helical's concerning 468 

Wei rspKKAN language, Work on xxix 

West Virginia, Field work in xxxiv 

Whale fishing, Inilian 174,203,247,314 

Whip. Eakimodog 244 

WiiiPi'ooRWiLL, Mytlis concerning 50(1 

White people, Legends — 201 

Wind, Beliefs — 207, 380, 410, 423, 440. 514, .523 

— makers of Siouan mythology 530 

Winnebago, Beliefs of the 360 

— cults, Description of 423 

— , Researches concerning xxxi 

— , Symbolic earth formations of 427 

WiNO.NA, Signilicanci^ of namo 532 

Witchcraft, Primitive 19, 08, 517 

\VoLF, Myths eoMcerning 39.203,330,477 

Wolverine .327, 333. 345 

—, Trapping of 281 

Woman (Doi'BLEi, Mythic 480 

Women, Condition of Indian 269,320 

— , Heyoka ; 4/1 

— , Myths concerning 204, 480 

AVOODBURN, J. M., quoted on Indian l>c 

liefs 482 

— . Reference to work of 363 

Wood rats, ^My ths concerning 34 

— , Con.sumption of 25 

\VoRSHlP, Primitive forms of 425, 436, 502. 514 

Wrestling, Indian 321 

Wyandot language. Work on xxx 

VONI, Cult of the 505 

Yi'ccA, Use of, in ceremonial 103,119,122 

VtiKIAN language. Work on xxix 

ZooTHEiSM .among Indians 67, 393 

ZuNi. Cult .soci<-ties of. . . 73 

— customs, R«'ference to 300 

— , Researches concerning xxx 

— , Symbolic cnlors of 532 



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